TEXTILE  FIBER ATLAS

A Collection of Photomicrographs of
Common Textile Fibers
by
WERNER VON BERGEN
Director of Laboratories, Forstmann Woolen Company
Teacher of Wool Manufacture, Columbia University
and
WALTER KRAUSS
Textile  Microscopist
Technical Laboratories, Sears, Roebuck & Company
Copyright 1942 by Authors
Published and Distributed by
AMERICAN WOOL HANDBOOK COMPANY
303 Fifth Avenue                                            New York, N. Y.
PREFACE
IN NO other field of technology and technical chemistry does microscopy play
such an important part as in the textile industry.    Without the help of the
microscope the chemist and technologist would be powerless when confronted
with today's demands in regard to the differentation and identification of fibers in
fabrics."    This  statement was made by Hoehnel in  1887,  repeating a statement
already made by Schacht 25 years earlier!
Today, with the labeling of fabrics, an established practice in the United States,
the usefulness of the microscope is even greater, especially that in addition to the
natural fibers, a number of entirely new fibers have appeared.
The purpose of this Atlas is to present for the first time, a set of photo-
micrographs of all important textile fibers. The idea originated from a series of
photomicrographs used in the Forstmann Woolen Company Laboratory for the
identification of wool and related fibers. The only Atlas we know of, covering the
vegetable fibers, was published by A. Herzog in Munich in 1908. The Atlas in its
present form is the result of combining the entire series of plates and articles which
were published in the Rayon Textile Monthly during 1940 and 1941. Due to
present conditions and the fact that the authors are engaged in defense, work, the
Atlas is not as complete as originally planned. However, so many requests for
complete sets of this series of articles have been made, that it was decided to revise
the articles and to reprint them in a loose leaf form. This form enables the
preparation, from time to time, of new and supplementary plates which may be
purchased and added to the Atlas, to keep it up to date.
It is very difficult to illustrate all the main characteristics of textile fibers
necessary for their proper identification. The selection of these photomicrographs
was made on the basis of twenty years' experience in the field and in those cases in
which the authors did not feel competent to do the work, pictures were obtained
from various other sources. We are especially grateful for the photographs and
data we obtained from Dr. R. Webb of the Cotton Division of the United States
Department of Agriculture, W. D. Appel of the Textile Section of the National
Bureau of Standards; Dr. M. Harris of the Textile Foundation, and C. J. Huber of
the United States Testing Company.
The text is, as much as possible, limited to a description of the properties that
can be established microscopically since a number of excellent books on textile
microscopy such as "Textiles and the Microscope" by Dr. E. R. Schwarz, give the
necessary details in regard to microscopical technique.
In addition to the photographic reproduction of fibers, the most valuable tool
for proper fiber identification and differentation is the measurement of fiber
dimensions.    In the past few years considerable improvements have been made in
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
PREFACE
these measurements. The improved technique makes it possible to measure the
great number of fibers necessary to obtain a reliable mean in a short time. The
importance of these methods is best illustrated by the fact that the United States
Government accepted them as standard methods and that they are in daily use by
government agencies such as the Quartermaster Depot, as well as in most textile
mills. The best methods were developed in connection with wool research done
to find a quick and accurate method of judging fineness. As the same methods
were used by the authors in their research to establish the fineness variation and
grades of many other fibers, it was felt essential to describe the procedure used in
detail. Special emphasis is placed upon the discussion of the methods suitable for
analyzing fabrics containing reprocessed and reworked wool. A valuable contribution
of the Atlas is the color plate made by George Moro illustrating the cross-section
of a fabric containing reworked wool.
The table showing the comparable scale for fineness of various textile fibers
which was prepared for the first edition of the American Wool Handbook has been
carefully revised.
A chart, illustrating the direct relationship between wool grades and the
various staple fibers will, no doubt, be of special value.
The nomenclature, prolons and synthons, given to man-made protein fibers
and to nylon and vinyon may be revolutionary. Prolon has been suggested as a
generic term for fibers made from a natural protein base by F. C. Atwood of Atlantic
Research Associates. Synthon was suggested as a generic term for fibers made from
organic substances which in turn have been synthesized from simple raw materials,
by Dr. H. deWitt Smith in a speech at the Textile School of the N. C. State College
in May, 1941.
The authors wish to express their appreciation to the Forstmann Woolen
Company and to Sears Roebuck & Company for the use of their technical equipment
in the preparation of the plates.
Clifton and Chicago                                                        Werner von Bergen
July, 1942                           .                                           Walter Krauss
Barnes Printing Company, Inc., New York
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
CONTENTS
NATURAL ANIMAL FIBERS
WOOL                                                                                                                                                  Text Pages
Plate     /—Epidermis—Cortex Medulla ..........................................................      7-8
Plate   II—Cross-Section—Natural Colored Wool—Grease Wool — Lambs' Wool — Shorn Wool — Pulled
Wool.
Plate ///—Cross-Section of Official U. S. Standards for Grades of Wool Top.    Grades 80s, 70s, 64s, 62s,
60s, 58s, 56s, and 50s................................................................    9-13
Plate IV—Cross-Section of Official U. S. Standards for Grades of Wool Top. Grades 48s, 46s, 44s, 40s, and
36s.    Method of Measuring.
Plate    V—Wool   Fiber   Damages—Sunlight—Alkali—Acid—Oxygen—Bacteria—Insect...............   14-16
Plate VI—Kodachromeplate.    Cross-Section of Reused  Wool—Rayon—Cotton and  Jute  Mixtures.    Re-
processed and Reused Wool Fibers.   Method of Analyses.
SPECIALTY HAIR FIBERS
Plate    VII—Mohair   and   Cashmere.............................................................   17-18
Plate VIII—Camelhair—Alpaca—Llama—Vicuna.
MINOR HAIR FIBERS
Plate IX—Hog Bristles—Horsehair............................................................   19-20
Plate    X—Human Hair—Goat Hair—Cow Hair.
FUR FIBERS
Plate XI—Rabbit Hair—Muskrat Hair .....................................'....................  21-22
Plate XII—Beaver—Racoon—Squirrel—Fox Fur Fibers.
SILKS
Plate XIII—Cultivated  Silk—Raw  Silk—Degummed  Silk—Lousy Silk .............................  23-24
Plate XIV—Wild Silks—Tussah Silk—Kuriwata Silk.
NATURAL VEGETABLE FIBERS
COTTON AND MINOR SEED HAIRS
Plate. XV—Cotton Structure—Longitudinal and Cross-Sections.....................................  25-26
Plate XVI—Cotton Maturity Test—Mercerized Cotton—Kapok and Pulu.
BAST FIBERS
Plate   XVII—Flax—Hemp  ....................................................................  27-28
Plate XVIII—Ramie—Jute.
STRUCTURAL FIBERS
Plate XIX—Sisal—Manila— New Zealand Flax................................................... 29-30
Plate    XX—Piassava—Raphia—Coir—Spanish Moss.
ARTIFICIAL AND SYNTHETIC FIBERS
RAYONS
Plate    XXI—Continuous  Filament  Rayons—Viscose   Rayon—Acetate   Rayon—Cuprammonium   Rayon—
Nitrocellulose Rayon..............................................................  31-32
Plate XXII—Rayon Staple Fibers—Fibro—Sylph—Acele—Celanese—Teca.
PROLONS
Plate XXIII—Protein Fibers : Lanital—Aralac—Soybean Fibers—Regenerated Silk.................        33
SYNTHONS
Plate XXIV—Nylon—Vinyon    ................................................................         34
MINERAL FIBERS
Plate XXV—Asbestos—Glass  ..................................................................       35
Wool Grades Versus Denier....................................................................       36
Comparative   Scale  for  Fineness  of  Various  Textile  Fibers   ......................................       37
Bibliography
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS                                             5
WOOL
Plates I and II
THE wool fiber is the hair of the sheep and forms
the protective covering of the animal.   The latest
information concerning the fine details of structure
of  wool  fibers was published  by Hock,  Ramsey  and
Harris.
A growing fiber consists of a root and shaft, the
former being the living region situated beneath the
surface of the skin, whereas the latter is the non-
living portion that extends above the skin surface.
The root has a scallion like shape. The shaft is
cylindrical and tapers to a point at its free end, pro-
vided the fiber has not been cut previously.
Since the cells of the root are alive and growing,
whereas the cells of the shaft are dead, there exist pro-
found physical and chemical differences between these
two regions of the fiber. Several of these differences
can be revealed by microchemical color tests. The
differences established between the root and shaft are
as follows:
Root
Soft and easily crushed.
Cells roundish.
Positive test for nucleic acid.
Nuclei stained with hematoxy-
lin.
Cytoplasm granular in appear-
ance.
Vot birefringent.
Positive test for sulfhydryl
groups.
No Allwoerden reaction with
chlorine  water.
Shaft
Tough and horny.
Cells elongated.
Negative test for nucleic acid.
Nuclei  unstained  with  hema-
toxylin.
Cells  distinctly  fibrous.
Birefringent.
Negative   test   for   sulfhydryl
groups.
Many large Allwoerden "sacs."
Increase in length of the fiber is brought about by
the proliferation of new cells in the root and the
subsequent emergence of these cells into the shaft. The
shaft is composed of dead cellular units which usually
are arranged in three layers—the epidermis, an outer
layer of scales, a middle region called the cortex, and
a central core or medulla.    See Cross-sections, Plate I.
EPIDERMIS : The outside or surface of the fiber
is made up of flat irregular horny cells or scales. They
overlap like the shingles of a roof with the free end
projecting outwards and pointing towards the tip of
the hair causing the surface of the fiber to present a
"serrated"   appearance.     (See   Plate   I.)
Depending on the diameter of the fiber the number of
scales necessary to cover the circumference of the fiber
varies considerably. The average height of the scales
is approximately twenty-eight microns and the average
width approximately thirty-six microns. The thickness
varies between 0.5 and 1 micron. In the finest wools
each one of the scales is large enough to encircle the
shaft of the fiber giving the impression of flower pots
set into each other. With increased fiber diameter
the number of scales necessary to cover the circum-
ference increases proportionally. Except for a few
indistinct markings on the surface, individual scales
show little evidence of internal structure. The scales are
arranged either shingle-like, overlapping longitudinally
and circumferentially or in a manner whereby the sur-
face of the fiber is given a tile-like appearance. These
different types of epidermis may be found in the same
hair. The visible scale height is an important character-
istic for differentiation between wool and related hair
fibers, such as mohair and camelhair. In fine wools
these visible scale lengths are 8-10 microns. In coarse
wools, the scale length may increase up to 18 microns.
This decreases the overlapping of the scales and gives
the entire fiber a smoother appearance. As the free
edges of the scales fit into each other very closely, coarse
wool is usually more hairlike and lustrous in texture.
The number of scales per 100 microns or 1/253 of
an inch average from 10 to 12, but may vary from 6
to 14.
CORTICAL LAYER: The cortex is found below the
protective epidermis scales. It constitutes the principal
body of the wool fiber and is made up of long, slightly
flattened and more or less twisted spindle shaped cells.
The. average size of these cells varies from 80 to 110
microns in length, 2 to 5 microns in width and 1.2 to
2.6 microns in thickness. Cortical cells liberated from
the fibers by the action of chemical agents show fimbri-
ated ends and they are in most cases prominently
striated. Hock has shown by micro-dissection that the
striated appearance of the cortical cells is due to the
presence of many fibrils which can be separated with
microneedles. Near the center of each cell is a nucleus
which has a granular structure. Between crossed nicols,
the fibrillar part of the cortical cells appears birefringent,
whereas the nucleus  does  not.
Nuclei are not easily observed in untreated cross-
sections, but are clearly visible after the latter have been
properly stained or swollen. In some of the cross-
sections on Plate IV, which were dyed with Orange II,
the outline of individual cortical cells and their nuclei
can be observed. When wool fibers are mounted in
water these longitudinal striations are clearly visible
through the epidermis.
MEDULLA: In medium and coarse quality wools a
third layer is found within the cortical layer, a cellular
marrow or medulla. It is built up of many super-
imposed cells of various shapes, often polygonal, re-
sembling a honey comb. The diameter of the cells
varies from   1   to  7  microns.
Various porous channels pass through the medullary
cells which are normally filled with air. The shape and
size of the medulla varies greatly. It may consist of a
single chain of cells or of several series arranged side
TEXTILE  FIBER   ATLAS
by side constituting from 10 per cent to over 90 per cent
of the volume of the wool fiber. According to the cell
arrangement the medulla is classified as (c) continuous,
(b) interrupted, and (a) fragmental medulla. (See
Plate I.)
FINENESS: The average fineness of the wool fiber
is the dominant dimensional characteristic. The diameter
of the wool fibers vary greatly ranging from 10 to 70
microns. In carpet wools kempy fibers are usually
present, the diameter of which varies from 70 to 203
microns.     (See Plate II.)
The fibers not only vary between themselves, hut
they also vary considerably in shape and diameter over
the whole length. The part nearest to the skin always
shows the least diameter, whereas the middle or end
is usually one or more microns coarser.
CROSS-SECTION: The cress-sections as seen in
Plate No. II, illustrate the great variation in the shape
of the fibers. Fine fibers are nearly circular, while
others are irregular and have a varying degree of
ellipticity.
The average ratio of the major to the minor axis
known as the contour figure varies between 1.2 and 1.3.
In kemp fibers this figure may increase to 3, as they
are of a ribbon-like, irregular form.
NATURAL COLORED WOOL: The natural col-
cred wools are recognized by the presence of pigments
in the cross-sections, which are distributed through the
cortical and medullary cells. There are two forms
present: a diffused or non-granular, and the granular
pigments. The darker the fiber, the greater the amount
of pigment present.    (See Plate II.)
RAW WOOL: The raw wool fibers, as clipped or
pulled from the skin of the sheep, are surrounded by
grease and dirt.
LAMB'S WOOL: A high number of tapering ends
in a wool sample is characteristic of lamb's wool.
SHORN WOOL: Flat, cut ends indicate that the
animal from which the wool was derived has been
previously shorn.
PULLED WOOL: Pulled wool is identified by the
presence of a high number of deformed and twisted
root ends. Many of them are surrounded by minute
particles of skin tissues and a dried up crust of salts
used in the depilatory processes.
These root ends should not be confused with root
ends and skin pieces which may be occasionally present
in fleece wool due to shedding and careless shearing.
Proper identification is possible through a swelling re-
action with 0.1 Normal/Caustic Soda. Pulled wool
roots hardly swell, whereas the root and skin particles
of fleece wool increases in size 50 per cent or more.
According to the fineness distribution, wool can be
classified into four main groups:
1.  Fine   wool,   with   approximate   average   diameter
limits from 17 to 23 microns.
2.  Medium wool, with approximate average diameter
limits from 23 to 33 microns.
3.  Coarse wool, with approximate average diameter
limits from 33 to 42 microns.
4.  Mixed or carpet wools are a mixture of group 1
and 3 wools.    The fine, short wool forming the
undercoat and the coarse, long wool forming the
outercoat.     In   addition,   various   percentages   of
kemp fibers are present.   Depending on the land of
origin and the breed the average diameter varies in
wide limits between 20 and 50 microns.
For trade purposes this classification is not specific
enough, and, therefore, these main groups are further
subdivided. Distinct systems of nomenclature are used,
according to the country they originate in, such as the
Blood or American system, and the numerical or English
system. The following table illustrates the various
designations for wool grades used in this country, and
their approximate relationship to each other:—
Approximate Comparison of Wool Grades
Used in the United States
£7.5-. Domestic		English	French	German	U.S. Pulled	A p pros Micron
Fine    ........	80's	80's		AA	A A	10 0
Fine    ...........	70's	70's	110	A	AA	20.0
Fine    ...........	64's	64's	105	AB	AA	21.5
	62's	—	PM	—_	A	23.0
V2 blood ........	60's	60's	PC	B	A	24.5
Vi blood ........	58's	58's	I	e	A	26.0
3A blood ........	56's	56's	II	c3		27 5
	54's		III	D1		29^0
Yi blood ........	SO's	50's	IV	D2	B	31.0
VA blood  ........	—	48's	V	E1	B	33.0
Low $4 blood  ...	—	46's	VI		C	35.0
Common    .......	—	44's	__	E3	C	37.0
Braid    ..........	—	40's	__	__	c	38.S
Braid    ..........	—	36's	__	__	c	40.0
TEXTILE   FIBER  ATLAS
OFFICIAL UNITED STATES STANDARDS FOR
GRADES OF WOOL
Plates III and IV
The average fineness of the wool fibers immediately
affects its value for manufacturing purposes. One of
the principal problems of the wool research was to find
a quick and accurate method of judging its  fineness.
Sheep do not produce wool in a condition imme-
diately suitable for yarn requirements, each fleece
carries strikingly different qualities of wool, and no two
fleeces, even from the same type of sheep and the
same producing district, are exactly alike in quality
and quality distribution. If the manufacturer were to
use the fleece in its original form he could only produce
coarse and uneven yarns.
From these facts it is obvious that prior to process-
ing, the fleeces must go through a sorting process.
Sorting, therefore, consists of subdividing a fleece into
its different qualities, the number of "sorts" made
depending on the character of the fleece and the standard
of yarn required. In present commercial practice the
routine grading of wool is done by men of long ex-
perience in the industry, who by merely handling and
observing the material assign it intuitively to its proper
grade. Such an estimate has many sources of error
principally based upon mental and physical qualities
of the sorter. At the same time other factors, for
example: light or color and luster of the hairs, con-
siderably influence the result. Through experience
we found that by a weak light the estimate is too fine
and by direct sun, it is too coarse. Because of all
these disadvantages, for more than one and a half
centuries the replacing of the system of manual sorting
by a system of measurements in a scientific manner has
been  felt  necessary.
In July, 1926, the U. S. Department of Agriculture
promulgated the Official Standards of the United
States for Wool and Top. After the adoption of this
standard, the scientist had a foundation upon which to
build an accurate method of measurement.
The most astonishing results were found by Winson
as he carried out a painstaking research on the measure-
ment of the standard top. He found that for a range
of selected British tops (the same tops were used in
making up the U. S. master set) the progressive scale
of fineness ascending from 48's to 80's quality is in
geometric progression. A similar relationship was
found for the French, German and Italian standard
tops and it proved that the fundamental basis under-
lying wool sorting was the same in all countries.
In 1860, Fechner in his "Elemente der Psycho-
Physik" put forward the law now known as the
Fechner-Weber law, which states: "In order that the
intensity of a sensation may increase in arithmetical
progression the stimulus must increase in geometrical
progression." This law, holding good between certain
limits only, is expressed in his general formula I = C
log S, where I represents the sensation, S the stimulus
and C is a constant. If we regard the wool sorter's
judgment as indicative of I, then it must immediately
follow that any attempt on his part to form a gradation
of fineness will result in a scale in which successive
finenesses increase in geometrical progression. This
is exactly the case in practice and in all countries.
It can be said that for the normal operation of the
wool sorter the Fechner psycho-physical law is the
fundamental basis of this work; therefore, for wool
sorting the eye in the visual sense is the paramount
factor.
For the wool top trade the United States Government,
Department of Agriculture, has issued specifications
covering the grades from 80's to SO's. These became
effective January 1, 1940, and represent the fruits
resulting from the enormous amount of wool research
done to find a quick and accurate method of judging the
fineness of this commodity.
To the original standard of 12 grades, a 13th was
added, namely, 62's which had long been used in the
American top trade. The standards today comprise 13
grades namely: 80's, 70's, 64's, 62's, 60's, 58's, 56's,
SO's, 48's, 46's, 44's, 40's and 36's. Eight of the
grades, from 80's to 50's are stated in terms of the
average diameter of fiber and the distribution of fiber
sizes   as   determined   by   microscopical   measurements.
Whereas the previous standard top was produced
from foreign wools, the first eight grades of the new
top contain 100 per cent domestic wool. The selected
lots as submitted by the trade were approved after
microscopical measurements had been made by five
mill laboratories and the Department of Agriculture
and reasonable agreement had been obtained in the
result. In this work over 86,000 measurements were
made, using the width method as issued by the Ameri-
can   Society for  Testing  Materials,   Designation 472.
The cross-sections shown in Tables III and IV were
made from the new government standard top samples
and illustrate clearly the difference in the fiber size
between the thirteen grades.
Methods of Tests
In the government method the determination of
conformity of wool top with the grade required may be
made by comparison or by measurement. In order
to make a comparison method possible the department
has issued practical forms as demonstrator types in
accordance with customary trade and industry prac-
tices and procedures. The methods of test by measure-
ments described by the U. S. Department of Agriculture
follows in general that published by the American
Society for Testing Materials (D 472-40) and by the
National Association of Wool Manufacturers Bulletin,
Volume 64.
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
Methods of Measuring
OPTIONALS—The measurement of the test sam-
ples shall be made by the Width Method or Cross Sec-
tion Method in accordance with the procedures herein-
after set forth.
Test Units
Number of fibers per test sample.—The minimum
number of fibers required for each test sample shall
be in accordance with the schedule given in table 1.
Number of fibers per determination.—The minimum
number of fibers required for each determination shall
be the number prescribed in table 1 for each test sample
times the number of test samples submitted.
Number of fibers per test specimen.—The number
of fibers comprising a determination shall be measured
in units of 100 fibers for each test specimen.
Location of test specimens.—The test specimens shall
be taken at random from various parts of the sample.
Width Method
PRINCIPLE—The width method employs the prin-
ciple of the projection of the magnified longitudinal
image of the fiber onto a wedge scale on which the
width of the magnified image is recorded. The ob-
servations so made form the basis for the computations.
MICROSCOPE.—The microscope shall have a focus-
ing stage, a fixed body tube, be built for projection,
and be equipped with an 8 mm. objective and a 12.5 X
eyepiece. For purposes of fiber measurement, the micro-
scope shall be calibrated at a projection distance giving
a magnification of 500 diameters in the plane of the
projected image.
Note. Magnifications less than 500 X may be used,
but the dimensions of the wedge scale and projected
field must be reduced proportionately.
WEDGE SCALE.—The wedge scale shall consist of
a strip of white paper or cardboard of suitable thick-
ness, imprinted with diverging lines, to form a wedge
having the dimensions shown in figure 1.
Note. A convenient wedge scale, oj the dimensions
shown in figure 1, can be obtained from the Agricultural
Marketing Administration.
PROJECTED FIELD.—The portion of the pro-
jected field in which measurements are to be made shall
not be larger than a circle 4 in. in diameter, centrally
located in the projected field.
Preparation of test specimen.—The prepared test
specimens should contain at least 120 fibers. For pur-
poses of preparation of the test specimen, a strand of
fibers approximately Ya inch in diameter is separated
from the carded sample, if in sliver form, by pinching
with the fingers or suitable forceps and the gripped
section cut to 1 in. to 2 in. in length, figure 2 (a). From
this portion, cut with scissors, razor blade, or scalpel,
a small section of approximately J4 in. in length, figure
2 (b). Spread the fibers more or less uniformly with
the aid of dissecting needles, taking care that none of
the fibers in the final test portion is lost. If necessary,
trim the fiber sheet thus prepared, figure 2 (c), and
mount in glycerol C.P. on a glass slide, covering the
fibers with a cover glass. The final arrangement of the
fibers on the slide should be similar to figure 2 (d). If
the sample is not in sliver form, small pinches of fibers
should be, taken at random from various parts of the
sample for preparation of the specimen.
MEASUREMENT PROCEDURE.—After the slide
is in place, move it by means of the mechanical stage
until the extreme left or right hand edge of the cover
glass is projected in the measurement circle.  Disregard-
ing the first few fibers, bring the image of a fiber into
sharp focus on the wedge scale, adjusting the position
of the scale until the image of the fiber is projected be-
tween the two lines of the wedge. Place a mark on the
wedge scale at the point at which the width of the image
and the width of the wedge correspond, figure 3. (The
image of a fiber which is not uniform in width may be
measured at a point which appears to be the mean value
between the greatest width and the least width, figure
4.) Bring the images of the other fibers successively
into focus and record until 100 fibers have thus been
measured. Repeat the above procedure on additional
test specimens until the required number of fibers per
test sample as specified in table 1 has been measured.
CALCULATION.—From the observations recorded
on the wedge scales, compute the distribution and aver-
age mean width or diameter of fiber in microns in accord-
ance with the requirements of table 1. The calculations
may be facilitated by condensing the observations into
classes of 2l/2 microns. An example of the calculations
for fineness is shown on page 11.
Cross-section Method
PRINCIPLE.— (a) In the cross-section method, the
image of the cross section of the fibers is projected
through a microscope upon sensitized paper at a mag-
nification of 500 diameters. The sensitized paper is then
developed, fixed, and dried. The images of the fibers
on the paper are measured in two directions at right
angles to each other by means of a celluloid wedge mea-
sure, graduated to read directly in microns, or by means
of a bidiameter scale.
(b) For direct measurement the image of the cross
section of the fibers may be projected on a sheet of white
paper and the images of the fibers measured in accord-
ance with paragraph (a).
APPARATUS.— (a) Microscopes.—Laboratory and
dissecting microscopes and a projection microscope as
specified previously will be required.
(b)   Cross-section device.—The cross-section device
illustrated in figure 5 shall be used in making the cross
sections of the fibers.   It  consists  of two  parts—the
fiber holder C with the fiber slot, and the slide holder D
in which is rigidly held a flat-surfaced metal plunger with
right angle flanges to fit in the slot of the fiber holder
(sliding fit).   When assembled, the shape of the cross-
section device is that of a microscopic slide,  1  in.  in
width and 3 in. in length.   The guides on each side of
the slide holder keep the fiber holder steady and help
hold the fiber and slide holder together, as shown in the
side view, B, figure 5.
(c)  Wedge measure.—The wedge measure illustrated
in figure 6 shall be made from celluloid 0.0020 in. in
thickness.
(d)   Bidiameter scale.—The bidiameter scale, figure
7, shall be made on a 2- by 2j4-in. piece of glass.  The
scale rulings shall cover an area of 3 by 4 cm.   Each
small division of 1 mm. is equal to 2 microns at a mag-
nification of 500 diameters.   The surface upon which
the scale rulings appear shall be protected from being
scratched by affixing a narrow strip of celluloid on each
of the 2-in. edges of the scale.
TEST SPECIMEN.—Test specimens shall be pre-
pared in the following manner: Separate a strand of
about 150 fibers from the sample figure 2 (a), taking
care not to disturb the distribution of the fibers as they
occur in the sample. Insert this strand of fibers in the
fiber holder and push the slide of the slide holder into
the fiber slot until the fibers are held securely in place.
The slide of the slide holder should have just sufficient
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
tension upon the fibers to hold them without distorting
their shape. With scissors, cut the fibers off close on
both sides of the fiber holder. Apply a drop of celluloid
solution on one side and allow to dry. Then cut the
fibers off flush on both sides of the fiber holder by means
of a sharp razor blade, the edge of which shall appear
smooth and free from nicks when examined under the
microscope at a magnification of 100 diameters. When
cutting the fibers, keep the bevel of the razor blade
parallel to the surface of the fiber holder. This may best
he accomplished by using a binocular microscope, mag-
nifying about 12 diameters. After the cross section is
made, examine it under a microscope at a magnification
of about 300 diameters. When the fibers are all smooth-
ly cut and each fiber is clearly defined, the cross section
is ready for projection.
PROCEDURE.— (a) Projecting cross section of
specimen.—With the projection microscope set for a
magnification of 500 diameters, the cross section device
shall be placed on the stage of the microscope and the
image of the cross section of the specimen shall be
focused through an orange-colored filter upon a sheet
of white paper. The illumination shall be uniform for
different cross sections. To obtain this condition a filter
of the proper depth of color should be used according to
the intensity of the light passing through the cross
section.
(b) Measuring fibers for fineness.—The cross section
of the fibers, section 20 (a) or (b), shall be measured
in microns for their greatest and least diameters, at right
angles to each other. The first few fibers near any
edge of the cross-section device shall not be measured.
Measurement of successive fibers without skipping, shall
be made in accordance with paragraphs (c) or (d) until
100 fibers have been measured.
(c)  By means of the celluloid wedge measure (figure
6) the cross sections of the fibers shall be measured in
microns for their greatest and least diameters, at right
angles to each other.   The horizontal unnumbered base
line is kept tangent to the periphery of the cross section
of the fiber.   Keeping this line tangent, the measure is
moved until one of the numbered sloping lines becomes
tangent.   This setting of the wedge measure gives the
diameter of the fiber in microns.   To facilitate the use
of the scale and shorten its length, three sloping gradu-
ated lines appear on this measure.
(d)  By means of the bidiameter scale (figure 7) the
greatest and least diameters of the cross section of a
fiber shall be measured as follows:   Place the extreme
left vertical line of the scale tangent to the periphery of
the fiber cross section at a point of major diameter.
With the scale in this position both diameters of the
fiber can be read directly in microns with one setting.
A reading can easily be made to one-half of a division,
which is equivalent to one micron.
CALCULATION.—The fineness of each fiber shall
be calculated by averaging its greatest and least diame-
ters. From the values thus obtained, calculations may
be made the same way as below.
Calculations for Fineness
			Deviation	Observed		Cumula-	Cumula-
Cell	Cell	Cell	in cells	frequency		tive	tive
number	midpoint	boundary	from "A"			frequency	Percent
			X	y	yx		
5	11.25	10.00-12.50	0	3	0	3	0.50
6	13.75	12.50-15.00	1	20	20	23	3.83
7	16.25	15.00-17.50	2	73	146	96	16.00
8	18.75	17.50-20.00	3	123	369	219	36.50
9	21.25	20.00-22.50	4	139	556	358	59.67
10	23.75	22.50-25.00	5	116	580	474	79.00
11	26.25	25.00-27.50	6	62	372	536	89.33
12	28.75	27.50-30.00 •	7	34	238	570	95.00
13	31.25	30.00-32.50	8	16	128	586	97.67
14	33.75	32.50-35.00	9	10	90	596-	99.33
15	36.25	35.00-37.50	10	3	30	599	99.83
16	38.75	37.50-40.00	11	1	11	600	100.00
			Ey	= 600      Eyx = 2,	540		
		A = Midpoint of cell	No. 5	= 11.25 microns			
		m = Units per cell		=    2.50 microns			
		Exy            2540				*	
				=    4.23			
		Ey                 600					
		Average diameter of fiber in microns		= Arithmetic mean = x			
				= A +  (m x a)			
				= 11.25 +   (2.5 x	4.23)		
				= 21.83			
The cross-section device described in the official
method produces cross-sections about 1/64 of an inch
thick and, therefore, depends largely for its efficacy
upon the translucence of fibers, thus limiting its applica-
tion primarily to white fibers.
In order to use the same technique on dyed and
natural colored fibers such as human hair, camelhair.
much thinner cross-sections are necessary. They can
easily be produced by using the improved cross-section
device by Hardy, with which sections as thin as three
microns can be obtained.
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
11
L
 -.....-----200mm.
 I  I
! C> p
50//
(5.0mm.
30/i'
/5.0mm s
--------------i-W
lOfJ                                         30/J
Fig. 1.—Wedge Ruler Consisting of Three
Wedges.
(a)  Separation of Strand of
Fibers from  Sample.
(b)   Cutting   *A-in.   Section.
(c)   Cut  Sample.
fIG 3.—Marking Wedge Ruler Where Fiber
is of Uniform Diameter.
Fie. 4.—Marking Wedge Ruler Where Fiber
is not of Uniform Diameter.
A = Assembly                        B =  Side View
C = Fiber Holder                  D =  Slide  Holder
Fig. S.—Cross-Section Device.
(<f)   Arrangement   of   Fibers   on   Slide.
Fig. 2.—Method of Preparing Test Specimen.
4   5    6    7
Fig. 7.—Bidiameter  Scale.
12
Fig. 6.—Wedge Measure.
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
The grade requirements for 80's to 50's inclusive
in average diameter of fiber and distribution of fiber
sizes for the standards and sub-standards with the
minimum number of fibers required for tests are given
in Table I.
The grades from 48's down to 36's are determined
by the comparison method. In Table II are the results
of measurements made on these lower grades by the
Department of Agriculture and the Forstmann Woolen
Company laboratory indicating that it is well possible
to evaluate these lower grades by optical methods.
On the basis of these measurements the wool sub-
committee of the American Society for Testing Mate-
rials has set up tentative specifications for the require-
ments of wool tops from 48's down to 36's with slight
modifications.
Table I
Grade...........................................................    80's       70's       64's       62's       60's       58's
Fineness Range
Average diameter in microns :t
Minimum    ...................................................    18.1       19.6       21.1       22.6       24.1       25.6
Maximum _...................................................    19.5       21.0       22.5       24.0       25.4       27.0
Fineness Distribution
Fiber diameter in microns:
Per Cent
10    to 20 incl.    Minimum.....................................    60          50          36          27          18          16
10    to 25 incl.    Minimum..................................•¦¦    92          84
10    to 30 incl.    Minimum.........................................          94          88          83          74
25.1 to 30 incl.   Maximum.................................¦ ¦ •      8
25.1 to 40 incl.    Maximum......................................           16
30.1 to 40 incl.    Maximum......................................            2            6          12          17
30.1 to 50 incl.    Maximum......................................           •¦           ••           ••           ••          26
40.1 to 50 incl.    Maximum......................................           ¦ •           ¦ •           • ¦           . •            2
30.1 and over.    Maximum....................................      0.25
(0.5)*
40.1  and over.    Maximum......................................            0.25       0.333     0.50       0.50
(0.5)*     (1.)*    (1.)*    (1.)*
50.1  and over.    Maximum......................................           ..           ..           ..           ..           0.75
(1.5)*
Fibers Required for Test
Minimum number of fibers required for test per sample............ 400        400        600        600        800        800
'Numbers in parenthesis represent maximum percentage of fibers of  that       tA  micron  is approximately  1/25000  of  an  inch,
range permissible in substandard grades.
56's
50's
27.1
29.0
64
36
5
1.
(2.)*
1200
29.1
31.5
45
55
10
1.25
(2.5)*
1200
Table II
Comparison of Measurements of United States Standard Top  Samples
United States Department of Agriculture and Forstmann Woolen Company
Tvfie         ¦                                        48'j Grade
U.S.D.A.
Number of Fibers......   3500
% of Fibers from:
10 to 30 m.............    38.5
10 to 40 m.............    82.9
40 to 50 m.............     15.7
50 to 70 m.............      1.4
Average  Microns   ......    32.5
Deviation    .............      7.9
Standard  Error   .......      0.13
Range:    ...............    32.1
\           ..............       to
3X   S.E...............    32.9
Coefficient   of   Variation
in   %   ...............    24.3%
46'j Grade
44's Grade
40'i Grade
16's Grade
P. W. Co.	U.S.D.A.	P. W. Co.	U.S.D.A.	P. W. Co.	U.S.D.A.	P. W. Co.	U.S.D.A.	P. W. Co.
1600	3000	1600	3800	1600	2600	1600	2700	1600
38.6	32.1	29.1	26.8	24.0	18.3	18.7	14.7	17.0
83.2	78.5	75.0	70.0	66.5	62.6	62.4	51.5	50.3
15.5	18.9	22.1	24.4	29.0	31.7	31.9	36.7	36.9
1.3	2.6	2.9	5.6	4.5	5.8	5.7	11.9	11.8
32.6	33.7	34.6	35.7	36.3	37.5	37.3	39.7	39.7
7.9	8.0	8.0	9.1	8.5	8.0	8.2	9.3	9.5
0.20	0.13	0.20	0.15	0.21	0.16	0.20	0.18	0.24
32.0	33.3	34.0	35.3	35.7	37.0	36.7	39.2	39.0
to	to	to	to	to	to	to	to	to
33.2	34.1	35.2	36.2	36.9	38.0	37.9	40.2	40.4
24.2%
23.7%
23.1%
24.3%
23.4%         20.5%
21.9%
23.4%        24.0%
Grade 52's/54's
This grade is recognized by the hand knitting wor-
sted yarn manufacturers.    The standard is as follows:
Average Fineness Range: 28.5-30.5 microns
Fineness Distribution
Fiber Diameter in Microns
10  -20             Minimum .............................    7%
10  -30             Minimum ............................. 54%
30.1-50             Maximum   ............................ 46%
40.1-50             Maximum   ............................    8%
50.1 and over   Maximum   .............................    1.25%
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
13
WOOL FIBER DAMAGE
Plates V and VI
The physiological features of normal wool and the
various commercial qualities of wool have been described
and illustrated in the previous pages.
The detection of damaged fibers and the subsequent
identification of the cause of damage is as essential
as the identification of the fiber proper. While the
various tests and illustrations given specifically pertain
to the wool fibers, the same causes for damage and tests
for detection and identification of same are applicable
for all other hair fibers.
Susceptibility to damage and sensitivity to reactions
increases in wool and other hair fibers with increase
in the fineness of the fibers.
A rough classification of causes is as follows:
I. Physical
Deformities of: the fibers
Mechanical damage
II. Chemical
Acid
Alkali
Chlorine
Oxidation
III. Bacteria and Insect
While most of these damages can be observed micro-
scopically, using regular mounting media, their proper
identification is at times complicated and requires the use
of various reagents for micro-chemical reactions.
In some cases different reagents or dyes are found
to be suitable. Four of the most common reagents are
mentioned repeatedly in various parts of this atlas. Their
preparation and means of application is given at this
point.
BENZO PURPURINE: Used as a quick means for
qualitatively determining, the. degree of damage. It is
applicable olily to white fibers.
One gram of Benzo-purpurine 10B is dissolved in
1000 c.c. wafer. For one gram of sample; 100 c.c. of
solution is used. This is 1 rought to a boil and the
sample is immersed in it for one minute. After subse-
quent rinsings and drying the sample can be compared
against known specimen. The higher the color absorp-
tion the greater the degree of damage.
ALLWORDEN'S REAGENT : This is concentrated
chlorine water. Undamaged fibers mounted in this
solution exhibit transparent gas filled bubbles arranged
in pearl like manner along the surface of the fiber.
The scales of the fiber are eventually dissolved. This
reaction can be used for alkali damaged fibers.
CAUSTIC SODA SOLUTION N/10: A reagent
for fiber swelling. The fibers are mounted in water
and their diameter is measured. The caustic soda is
then placed on one end of the cover, glass and is sucked
under the glass by means of a filter paper placed at
the opposite end. The fibers are measured again after
the swelling is complete.
KRAIS VIERTEL REACTION : 20 gm. of sodium
hydroxide are dissolved under cooling and shaking in
50 ccm. concentrated ammonia. The solution is stable
for about 2 months. Fibers are mounted in this reagent
and the time recorded that is required to bring out
characteristic granular air bubbles. This is a reliable
reagent for the determination of acid damages.
I.    Physical Damage
A.  FIBER DEFORMITIES: Fibers obtained from
sheep that were at one time or other sick or unproperly
bred may exhibit pronounced deformities.    The fibers
show thick and thin places, and their lengths and number
are dependent on the occurrences and duration of the
sickness.    The illness of the animal often yields tender
staple wool. At one place the fibers may be reduced to
less than half their original diameter.    Severe cases may
result in broken staple or double staple.
The cause of such a condition is that during the period
of sickness the wool not only stops growing but actually
sheds off. The new fleece starts growing as soon as
health is restored. Held together by some hairs which
have not been shed, and by the wool grease, the shed
fleece remains on the back of the sheep. Thus, the
newly grown fleece becomes the support for the shed
fleece, therefore resulting in a broken staple.
B.  MECHANICAL DAMAGE: Mechanical breaks,
cuts and abrasions are described under reworked wool.
II.    Chemical Damage
The various damages caused by chemicals are de-
scribed in the order of their possible occurrence in
manufacturing.
A. SUNLIGHT: Even while the fibers are still on
the back of the sheep they are open to chemical damage.
Sunlight and severe weather conditions are responsible
for a photochemical decomposition of the fibers. The
damage is especially noticeable in fibers from the back
of the animal. It causes a yellowish brown discolora-
tion, and a brittleness that results in the eventual loss
of the scales. Aside from the decrease in strength,
the sunlight-damaged fiber tips have an increased or
.decreased .affinity for certain dyestuffs. The fibers
become highly sensitive to alkali, and treatment with
N/10 caustic soda causes the fibers to swell and
eventually to curl.
Tests made on wools from various parts of the sheep,
gave the following results:
End of the Staple
Origin
Width,       Width,     Swellin
Place on the     Unswollen,  Swollen,          %
Animal                u                u
Australian wool
Virginia wool
Wyoming
\ back
1 belly
(back
1 belly
back
23.08
27.27
35.06
42.08
22.75
44.46
29.88
45.23
44.37
35.78
92.63
9.6
29.00
5.44
57.27
14
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
B.  SCOURING—ALKALI DAMAGE:   Wool, as
all other hair, is extremely sensitive to alkali and by far
the greatest amount of damage found can be attributed
to   the   action   of   alkali.     This   is   especially   true   of
finished fabrics and garments in use by consumers.
Wool scouring while in all instances made under
carefully adjusted and controlled conditions still ac-
counts for a certain amount of visible damage. Fibers
deprived of all of their natural greases at times exhibit
small dots or holes within,the cortex as well as in the
epidermis. These holes are especially evident after
severe extraction of oils and grease by means of solvents.
Further action may result in eventual removal of the
scales. The fibers have a very harsh feel. By the use
of the Allworden's reagent the failure of the reaction
to take place is usually indicative of alkali damage.
Quantitative conclusions cannot be obtained with this
reaction.
C.  ACID DAMAGE:   Sulfuric acid used in carbon-
izing and hydrochloric acid used in stripping color are
responsible for the characteristic brush ends sometimes
found in certain wools.   Though wool is not as sensitive
to acid as to alkali a certain amount of damage can be
ascribed to excess of acid left in the fibers.
A reliable test for acid damage is the Krais-Viertel
reaction. The fibers are mounted in the reagent or the
fibers are mounted in water and the reagent is drawn
under the cover glass by means of filter paper. The
time should be recorded from the moment the reagent
comes in contact with the fibers to the appearance of
the first characteristic granular bubbles. Viertel gives
the following lapses of time for various degrees of
damage:—¦
At to 2 min.........strong acid damage
Between 2 to 6 min...acid damage
Between 6 to 10 min..acid treated but not damaged
Between 8 to 12 min..normal wool
IS to 30 min. and over.possible retention of reaction due to alka-
line treatment or damage
D.  CHLORINE AND BLEACHING DAMAGE:
Chlorine is used in both liquid or gas form for shrink-
proofing processes and printing of woolen fabrics. Wool
improperly  treated  with  diluted  chlorine  solution  be-
comes harsh, lustrous and loses its felting ability.    At
the same time  the dyestuff affinity increases  rapidly.
Chlorinated wools have an appearance similar to sun-
light damaged wool fibers.
Wools damaged through bleaching can be quantita-
tively checked with N/10 caustic soda. A swelling of
over 20 per cent in N/10 caustic soda indicates serious
damage to the fibers treated by chlorination or bleaching.
III.    Bacteria and Insects
Both damages have such characteristic appearance
that no special reagents are necessary for their identifi-
cation.
The destruction of wool through bacteria can usually
be detected by the moldy smell and the extreme weak-
ness of the fibers or fabric. If wool is left in a warm
place in a moist alkaline condition with lack of air,
certain bacteria will grow and produce enzymes which
break down the scales and hydrolyze the intercellular
substance binding together the cortical cells.
Insect damage is characterized by the bite-marks of
the moth or carpet beetle larvae on the fibers (see Plate
V). No differentiation between damage caused by either
animal is possible except where fragments or excrement
of the animal is present.
Reprocessed and Reworked Wool
Since July IS, 1941, the Wool Products Labeling Act
of 1939 which was approved on October 14, 1940, by
Congress is effective. On May 25, 1941, the Federal
Trade Commission issued 35 rules and regulations to
guide the textile and apparel trades in properly labeling
their products under this Wool Products Labeling Act.
In this act, the manufacturer as well as the retailers
are required to label their product, not only as far as
wool and other fibers than wool are concerned, but also
to state the amount of reprocessed and reused wool
present.
The definitions as laid down tin the Act for wool, re-
processed and reused wool, are as, follows:
The term "wool" means the fiber from the fleece of the
sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and
may include the so-called specialty fibers from the hair of the
camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been re-
claimed from any woven or felted wool product.
The term "reprocessed wool" means the resulting fiber when
wool has been woven or felted into a wool product which,
without ever having been utilized in any way by the ultimate
consumer,   subsequently   has   been   made  into  a  fibrous   state.
The term "reused wool" means the resulting fiber when wool
or reprocessed wool has been spun, woven, knitted, or felted into
a wool product which, after having been used in any way by the
ultimate consumer, subsequently has been made into a fibrous
state.
In addition to the above three classifications of wool, which
are mentioned in the law itself, the Federal Trade Commission
recognizes a further classification known as virgin or new
wool, which is defined as "wool which has never been used or
reclaimed or reworked or reprocessed or reused from any spun,
woven, knitted, felted, or manufactured or used product."
It is a well established fact that through the re-
converting process and bringing a finished fabric back
into a fibrous state through rigorous mechanical treat-
merit such as garnetting and picking, the wool fibers are
severely damaged. The protective scales are torn away
and the fibrous cortical layer is splintered as well as
broken. The five fibers illustrated on Plate VI show
the various degrees of such damage. (Reprocessed
wool.)
If, in addition to this treatment, a fabric has received
considerable wear before reduction to the fibrous state,
the percentage of damaged fibers is still higher. (Re-
used wool.)
The examination of fabrics made from reprocessed
wool, reused wool or mixtures of both with wool is one
of the most difficult problems for the textile micro-
scopist. It requires a high degree of accuracy coupled
with long experience.
As seen from Plate V, the mechanically damaged
fibers generally have an appearance sufficiently different
to tell them apart from fibers which are damaged by
chemical or bacterial action. It is impossible to definitely
recognize each individual fiber as being reprocessed or
not. In a normal manufacturing process some of the
fibers are damaged in a similar manner.
TEXTILE  FIBER   ATLAS
15
Despite certain difficulties in recognizing virgin wool,
reprocessed wool and reused wool, in most fabrics it is
possible qualitatively to determine just what the fabric
contains.
In order to arrive at any just estimate, it is necessary
to conduct many comparative examinations on known
samples. Based on research made in this field Matthews,
Skinkle, Hardy and von Bergen agree that the most
important characteristics of reclaimed wool (reprocessed
or reused) which may be employed in detecting its pres-
ence are:
1.  The Percentage of Damaged Fibers
This percentage can be established in different ways.
The method used in the Forstmann Woolen Company
laboratory is as follows:
The fabric under test is separated into its individual
yarns. Each yarn is then carefully opened and the fiber
mounted on a slide, using glycerine as the imbedding
medium. The slide is then examined unde the projec-
tion microscope (x 500 magnification) similar to the
procedure used in establishing the fineness of the wool
fibers. In going across the slide at three different places,
at the top, in the middle, and at the bottom, the fibers
are counted and all fibers showing damage of the
cortical layer of the slightest extent such as breaks and
cuts (similar to those illustrated in Plate VI) are
recorded separately. Fibers where the epidermis scales
are only missing are not counted as damaged because
of their close resemblance to mohair fibers. Of each
yarn, at least two slides are made and the minimum
number of fibers examined is 500.
In the following table are results of research made
with this method on fabrics containing various amounts
of reprocessed wool in comparison with the same fabric
made originally from virgin wool.
Percentage of Damaged Fibers Found in Different
Samples
Velour      Broadcloth   Flannel   Cheviot       Cheviot
Fabric                    Wool            Piece          Piece      Piece          Wool
Dyed           Dyed         Dyed      Dyed          Dyed
H Bl.         50%
V2 Blood      64V Penn       70's   Minnesota    Domestic
Original Blend              Missouri       Delaine         Ohio   B/C S.A.        50%
6 Mo. Texas  Delaine    Lamb    Aust. Lambs
100%  Virgin   .... 2.04%     1.27%     179%     1.54%     1.39%
50% Virgin
50% Reprocessed  . 4.45%     4.15%     4.91%     4.12%       .....
30% Virgin
70% Reprocessed................      6.27%       .....
100%   Reprocessed 6.58%       .....      6.90%       .....      6.46%
The figures represent the average of at least 3 tests of 600
fibers each.
Another technique developed by Hardy and used by
the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of
Animal Industry, is based on limiting the count to the
fiber ends. In this technique the preparation of the
slide is quite difficult in order to obtain the necessary
amount of ends. At least 100 ends have to be recorded.
In using this method the following results were obtained
on the following three fabrics:
Blend
50%
Virgin
100%              Wool                 100%
Virgin              50%            Reprocessed
Wool         Reprocessed            Wool
Wool
51.54%          62-64%
Percentage of Damaged Ends  21%
All these tests were made with fabrics containing re-
processed wool only. As stated in the beginning, the
number of damaged fibers in reused wool is higher than
in reprocessed wool. This fact is substantiated by three
samples analyzed, with the following results:
Blend                                  75% Wool         65% Wool     65% Wool
25% Re-            35% Re-        35% Re-
used Wool         used Wool       used Wool
Percentage of Damaged Fibers  4.1%          6.1%          5.83%
As can be seen from these figures, 35 per cent reused
wool has approximately the same amount of damaged
fibers as blends containing 100 per cent reprocessed wool.
2.  The Presence of Fibers Other Than Wool
Today much reclaimed wool is recovered from fabrics
containing various amounts of cotton, rayon and silk.
The presence of various percentages of cotton and
especially of rayon fibers of different sizes and in their
dull and lustrous form are indications of reworked wool.
In establishing the proper percentage of these different
fibers present, the microscopical count of a fine cross-
section is preferable and the chemical analysis should be
used  (see color photomicrograph) in addition.
3.  Fibers of Many Colors
The color of the fibers is also a characteristic ap-
pearance of reclaimed wool, as the majority of them
are made up of variously colored wools. Though many
of these fibers are redyed, covering up their original
shade, the original color of the individual fibers is re-
vealed through the medium of fine cross-section as illus-
trated in the color photomicrograph.
The fabric from which this cross-section was made
was a green snow suit. By dyeing the fabric made up
of white and multicolored fibers, a dark green shade,
the green dyestuff penetrated most of the wool fibers
not much further than the epidermis, leaving the larger
part of the cortical layer as it was originally. As illus-
trated in the color photomicrograph we find four fibers
showing a distinct pink in the center, one fiber blue, and
another brown, all with the green on the outside.
The green snow suit from which the color photo-
micrograph was made was tested as follows:
Chemical Analysis:
Wool content—sulphuric acid method................ 86.4%
Microscopical Analysis:
Fiber Content:
Wool  ........................................... 84.6%
Viscose Rayon  ..................................    8.0%
Cotton  ..........................................    7.2%
Jute   ............................................    0.2%
Fiber Damage:
Percentage of damaged fiber...................... 28.4%
Percentage of damaged ends...................... 76.0%
From these facts it can be safely stated that this fabric
contains at least 90 per cent reclaimed fibers of the
reused type because of the presence of:
(1)   extremely high number of highly damaged fibers,
(2)   fiber presence of many colors.
(3)   the presence of rather small percentage of cotton
and rayon fibers of various sizes and in their
dull and lustrous form.
There is no question that with the labeling of the
fabrics a high number of samples to be studied will be
available, and the accuracy of the microscopical pro-
cedure for the determination of reprocessed or reworked
wool will be considerably improved.
16
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
SPECIALTY HAIR FIBERS
Plates VII and VIII
Mohair
Mohair is the hair fiber, which forms the long lustrous
coat of the Angora goat. The goat is bred on a com-
mercial basis in the United States, Turkey and the
Union of South Africa. The hair grows in long
uniform locks, which when scoured, are of a clear white
color and of a silk-like luster.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE: In its micro-
scopical structure the mohair fiber is similar to wool,
but has some characteristics, which make its identifica-
tion possible.    (See Plate VII.)
The epidermal scales are only faintly visible and
scarcely overlap. They lie closely to the stem giving
the fiber a very smooth appearance. The number of
scales per hundred microns are 5 against 10 to 11 in
fine wools. The scale length varies from 18 to 22
microns.
The cortical layer is clearly visible as strong stria-
tions throughout the length of the fiber. In many fibers,
air filled pockets or vacuoles of a cigar-like shape of
various lengths are found. The percentage of such
hairs containing vacuoles varies in wide limits.
MEDULLAE: The number of medullated fibers in
well-bred mohair is normally below one per cent. As in
wool, three forms of medullas are found with the con-
tinuous type the most common.
CROSS-SECTION: Mohair has a cross-section of
high circularity. The ratio between the major and
minor diameters is usually 1:1.20 or lower. In many
cases the cross-section shows hairs with black dots or
little circles caused by the air-filled pockets or vacuoles,
already mentioned. In poor grade mohair, kemp
fibers are present.    They are  similar to wool kemp.
FINENESS: Mohair fibers vary in diameter from
14 to 90 microns. There is a distinct difference in the
fineness of the kid hair and the adult hair, with the
latter several microns coarser. Mohair is graded and
sorted similar to wool using fineness as the main basis
of quality. Various systems of nomenclature are used and
the trade has not yet arrived at a common standard.
However, the following seven grades represent a good
over-all cross-section of the United States mohair
market :—
The Seven Grades of Mohair
Average
Nomenclature                 Microns
1.  Baby Kid    or 40's       23-25
2.  Super Kid   or 36's       25-27
3.  Kid               or 32's       27-30
4.   Super First or 28's       30-34
5.  First             or 24's       34-40
6.   Second         or 20's       40-50
7.  Third            or low       50-60
Natural colored mohair is
Small amounts are imported
Coeff. of  Dispersion
Vat. %     Microns
19-22
19-22
19-22
22-25
22-25
Over 25
Over 25
10-40
10-45
10-50
10-50
10-55
15-60
20-90
Comparable
Wool Grade
62's
60/58's
56's
50/48's
46/40's
36's
below 36's
of a reddish brown color,
from Turkey and with the
exception of the presence of color pigments the micro-
scopic characteristics are the same as white mohair. (See
Plate VII.)
Cashmere
Cashmere hair is obtained from the cashmere goat
(capra hircus laniger), which is native in Tibet and
northern India. The hair cover of the cashmere goat
consists of two distinct coats namely: A fine undercoat
or down made up of very soft, wavy silk-like fibers, the
cashmere -wool and an outer coat of long straight and
coarse hairs, the beard hair.
The color of the wool hairs are white, grey or tan
with the grey and tan mixtures predominating. The
beard hairs may be white, dark brown and black. (See
Plate VII.)
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE: The cashmere
wool fibers show clearly the scales which slightly project
beyond the cortical layer, giving a serrated effect. The
number of scales per 100 microns averages 6 to 7. The
cortical layer of the white and grey hairs show distinct
longitudinal streaks, while the brown hairs are covered
completely with minute dyestuff pigments. Medullated
fibers are absent.
FINENESS: The diameter of the cashmere wool
hairs is extremely regular and uniform ranging from
5 to 30 microns with an average fineness range from
15 to 16 microns. The values, given in the following
table illustrate this uniformity.
Fineness Analysis of Commercial Cashmere Samples
Scoured
Types               Grey
Number of Fibers      1000
Average   Microns      14.8
Coefficient of
Variations  in   %      20.3        18.6        18.0        19.2       20.1
Since the hair is obtained by plucking it from the
skin of the animal, most fibers retain their roots. The
fibers have long fine tips which due to their fineness,
are often broken off while still on the back of the animal.
CROSS-SECTION: The cross-section of the fiber
is practically circular. The colored hairs show the
dyestuff pigments very distinctly.
BEARD HAIRS: The beard hair consists of all
three layers of cells. The medulla on the whole con-
stitutes the largest part of the hair. The root and the end
do not contain any medulla. Partially medullated hairs
are rarely found.
FINENESS: The diameter of the beard hairs is
extremely irregular. They vary from 30-150 microns
with an average width of 62 microns.
Persian Cashmere
This hair often commercially marked as "Cashmere"
is  derived  from goats  in  Persia.    It is  considerably
Top
Gve1}
1000
15.6
NOILS
Grey        WhiU
1000       1000
15.1        15.1
Fabrics
of Four
M'frs
800
15.4
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
17
coarser than the genuine cashmere, running on an aver-
age between 19 and 20 microns, which is very close to
the width of camelhair. Another distinction is its oc-
currence in colors such as cream, fawn, and dark brown,
which are not present in genuine cashmere.
Camel Hair
Camel hair is obtained from the Bactrian camel,
raised chiefly in Mongolia. The animal sheds its hair
annually. The color of the fibers is very characteristic,
having a light, reddish brown shade. Like the cash-
mere goat, the camel carries a mixed fleece, a fine
undercoat and coarse beard hairs. There is no clear
line of demarcation between the two fiber types. Numer-
ous fibers have characteristics of both wool and hair.
(See Plate VIII.)
The trade recognizes three commercial grades: Fine,
medium and coarse, or Quality 1, 2, and 3, respectively.
These grades are based on the amount of coarse fibers
present.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE: The width of
the "down" ranges from 9 to 40 microns with the
average around 18 microns. The epidermal scales are
long and poorly visible. There are 7 to 9 scales in
100 microns. The diagonal edges of the scales are
more or less sharply bent. The cortical layer is regu-
larly striated and filled with color pigments. A small
percentage of fibers having interrupted medullas is char-
acteristic for camel hair. Beard hairs are dark brown to
black, 30-120 microns broad with a wide and mostly
continuous, medullary cylinder. The thin cortical layer
contains strong accumulations of dark brown to black
colored granules. The medullary cells are short, but
broad, and are filled with color pigments. (See Plate
VIII.)
The table below gives fineness measurements made
on various samples of camel hair obtained in the trade:
Fineness Analysis of Commercial Camel Hair
Carded            TOP                       NOILS            Fabrics
Type                 Fine        Fine    Coarse  No. 1     No. 2      No. 3    Fine
Number of
Fibers             1000     1000    1000    1000    500      500      600
Average
Microns          19.7      18.2     23.1      18.0     20.9     22.8      16.8
Coefficient of
Variations
in %               33.5% 30.1% 41.0% 29.9% 37.1% 40.8% 29.8%
Alpaca, Llama, Vicuna,  Guanaco
All of these hair fibers are obtained from animals
belonging to that of the camel. The habitat of the
first three animals is the high Andes regions of south-
ern Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia and northwestern Ar-
gentina. The Guanaco is chiefly confined to Pata-
gonia (S. Argentina). The Alpaca and Llama are
domesticated, whereas the Vicuna and Guanaco are
not.    All these animals produce a certain amount of
fleece, but by far the greater portion, approximately
98 per cent, is derived from the Alpaca and the two
hybrids, Huarizo and Misti.
The fleeces of the Llama and Alpaca are similar in
character to that of the Angora goat. Through years
of breeding the undercoat has disappeared and the hairs
have become uniform in diameter and length. In the
Llama wool a high percentage of kemp is usually present,
whereas the fine alpaca wool has practically none.
The color of the hair of both species is variegated,
being  white,  grey,   fawn,   brown,   piebald  and  black.
The vicuna fleece is of the mixed type consisting of
wool and beard hairs. The vicuna wool hair is the
softest and finest wool fiber utilized in wool manufac-
turing. The color of it ranges between a golden
chestnut and a deep rich fawn.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE: The epidermal
scales of all hairs of the llama family are very indistinct.
The cortex is regularly striated and except in the
white filled with color pigment. The main character-
istic of alpaca and llama wool is the presence of a high
percentage of fibers containing interrupted medulla.
In the beard hairs, the continuous medulla show con-
traction in the middle, appearing as a double channel, as
is seen in the cross-section of the alpaca. (See Plate
VIII.)
Vicuna is easily distinguished from Llama and Alpaca
because of its great fineness. The vicuna wool fibers
vary in width from 6-25 microns with the average be-
tween 13-14 microns. The Alpaca fibers cover a range
from 10-60 microns with the average lying normally
between 26-28 microns, of the fibers derived from the
adult animals.
The fineness of the various hairs yielded by the
members of the Llama family is indicated in the table
below:
Fineness of Commercial Llama Hairs
Types
LLAMA           ALPACA HUARIZO VICUNA
Baby
Raw      Llama   Scoured     Tops    Scoured Scoured
Mixes    Scoured Piebalt    Various  Carded   Carded
Number of Fibers    500      400      1000     1200      500      1100
Average  Microns      27.0     20.1     26.7      27.3      25.8     13.2
Coefficient of
Variations in %       23.3% 21.9% 26.6% 29.3%   23.6% 17.4%
Expressed in wool fineness terms Llama, Alpaca
and Huarizo range between a 56's and 60's wool grade
with the baby llama as fine as 70's. The vicuna is
between a 120's and 130's wool quality.
Guanaco
Measurements made by Whitford on Guanaco fibers
place this fiber in respect to fineness between the Alpaca
and Vicuna fibers. Width averages vary from 18 to
24 microns and 10-11 scales per 100 microns.
18
TEXTILE  FIBER  ATLAS
MINOR HAIR FIBERS
Plates IX and X
Other hair fibers found occasionally in textiles besides
those mentioned previously, are human, horse, cow
and common goat hair as well as hog bristles. These
hairs are utilized in various fields for effect in woolen
yarns, for linings, driving belts, carpets, filter and press
felts,  and  especially  bristles  in  brushes  of  all  kinds.
In this group we find all the possible different
varieties of hairs. They are distinguished according
to their diameter, length, stiffness and shape as Bristles,
Bristle hairs, Beard hairs and Wool. The coarse,
long, stiff, elastic and tapering hairs of the hog are
typical bristles. Bristle hairs are short, straight, stiff
hairs with a pronounced medulla such as the body hair
of the horse. Beard hairs are regular in diameter
throughout, long, straight or slightly wavy, generally
with a medulla. The human hair and the hair from the
manes and tails of horses belong in this class. The fine,
wavy underhair of the common goat is classified as wool.
The structure of these fibers is fundamentally the
same as that of the wool fibers, the chief difference
being that the minor hair fibers as a whole have a
larger average diameter.
Hog  Bristles
This fiber is chiefly employed in brushes of various
types and for filling material in upholstery. The gold
colored pig hair has found use as an effect hair in fancy
blends of woolen yarns.     (See Plate IX.)
There are numerous qualities of bristle depending on
their color, length, fineness and place of origin such as
domestic hog bristle, French, Russian and Chinese
bristles. The outstanding character of the bristles against
all other hair is that they are coarse, stiff and taper in
diameter from base to tip, and that the tips are split or
flagged. The flagged tip is caused by splits in the medulla,
which separates the fine ends of the hairs into two or
more sections as seen in the photomicrograph on Plate
IX. As the bristles are normally obtained by pulling,
the root ends are frequently present.
The epidermal structure of the hog bristles shows
that the free scale ends form a system of very fine
narrow lines. This formation is the most irregular
of all animal hairs.   The scales have fine jagged edges.
As a large amount of the bristles are of dark color,
a study of the cross-section is valuable in identification.
The shapes vary from fully round to oval. All fibers
have a medullary channel, which diminishes or dis-
appears usually at the butt end. Its size increases from
the middle of the bristles toward the tip. It changes its
shape from nearly round at its beginning to a star-like
shape towards the tip of the fiber. Very often the circular
structure of the medulla is missing, leaving only hollow
spaces.   The dyestuff pigment distribution in dark fibers
is balanced, with the maximum amount of pigment in
the center of the fiber, gradually diminishing towards
the epidermis. Width measurements made on 15 fibers of
French bristles showed the following results:
Base
Tip
French Bristles
Average Width
Microns
.......    256
.......    180
Dispersion
Microns
148—326
98—250
Horse  Hair
Horse hair finds little use in ordinary woolen and
worsted goods. The mane and tail hairs are used in
linings, and upholstery cloth whereas the much shorter
body hair is used as stuffing for upholstery.
The epidermis differs from the hog bristles in that
the distance between the free protruding ends of the
scale is larger in the horse hairs. The distance between
the scale lines varies according to the diameter of the
fiber. The scales of the fine pony hairs are farther apart
than the much coarser horse hair. There seems to be
little difference in the various species of horses.
The cross-section normally is highly circular and
where a medulla is present it is very pronounced,
occupying more than half of the fiber. (See cross-
section of the pony hair, Plate IX.
A chief characteristic is the distribution of the color
pigments especially in non-medulled fibers. They form
a ring close to the epidermis and gradually diminish
in number towards the center of the fiber. In some
dark brown and black hairs, the pigment decreases
toward the center in a star-like fashion. It gives a
similar effect as the medulla in a hog bristle as is clearly
seen from the cross-section of the black horse hair.
This pronounced difference in the pigment distribution
between hog and horse fibers was first utilized for
identification purposes by E. Weirick.
By treating the fibers in warm 10 per cent caustic
soda dark hog bristles when examined longitudinally
will exhibit the pigment concentration in the center of
the fiber as a heavy dark line. Horse hairs, on the
other hand, swollen by the caustic soda, will show two
heavy dark lines running along the fiber edges.
The diameter of the horse hairs varies considerably.
The short body hairs, according to Mathews, vary in
average diameter from 80 to 100 microns. According
to the A.S.T.M. specifications, horse-tail hairs have an
average diameter of not less than 140 microns, with
the dispersion range from 75 to 280 microns, whereas
the mane-hairs are finer with an average around
110 microns and a dispersion range between 50 and
150 microns. Measurements made en a sample of pony
hair gave an average diameter of 43 microns and'a
dispersion range between 17 and 75 microns. All the
hairs are rather regular in diameter.    (See Plate XI.)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
19
Standard
Error
17
1.87
1.93
2.24
1.9S
2.24
4.42
Width  Variation in Horsehair
Sample Size 100 Fibers
Age of                                                iDis-
Animal     Average    Variation           persion
Type of Hair         Years       Microns   Per Cent            Range
Tail  .........    1           149           11.2           113-188
Tail  .........   11           167           11.0           123-213
Tail  .........   19           183           10.4           133-233
Mane........    1           121           19.7             73-168
Mane........   11           129           14.9            93-173
Mane........   19           124           17.8             98-158
50%    Tail).                    147           2gfi            68-253
50% Manej.                   14/          aA            b8 £bi
Courtesy of Dr. Appel, National Bureau of Standards.
Human Hair
Human hair is sometimes employed in linings to
replace the more expensive and rarer horse hair, as
well as in wigs, doll hair, hairnets and similar products.
As the hair is clipped only occasionally, hair with
the root attached, as shown in the microphotograph, is
found. The epidermis structure is similar to the one
found in previously discussed hairs with the free ends
of the scales running in parallel lines with small indenta-
tions and occasional pronounced notches.     (Plate X.)
Hausman has found through his examination of
hundreds of hair shafts from the different races, only
one characteristic type of scales, that of the flattened
type. This gives the hairs a very smooth appearance
with the scales lying close to the shaft. He states that
the coarser the hair, the finer the scales, and vice versa.
The cross-section of the human hair varies from
elliptical to nearly circular or angular shape, with the
former type predominating.
Tests made on a sample of head hair (male, white)
showed a ratio between the major and minor diameter
of 1.55. The epidermis in the cross-section can be seen
as a pronounced ring forming the outer contour of the
hair, having a thickness of about 0.5 microns.
The presence of medullated fibers varies consider-
ably. It was noted that the medullary channel is either
present in most of the hairs in one person, or is absent
in all hairs. The medullary cell may form either a
continuous or an interrupted core. The color of the
human hair depends, as in other hairs, on its content
of pigment and air. The pattern formed by these granules
varies within wide limits. Hausman makes the follow-
ing statement: "Within racial group limits, as well as
within individual head limits, wide variations in hair
shaft structure and pigmentation occur of such mag-
nitude as to warrant the supposition that these variations
are indicative of differences in racial sources of the
samples."
The size of human hairs is usually very uniform.
According to Febiger, the average diameter of the
human hair ranges between 70 and 96 microns. Measure-
ments made on the head hairs of a white man, a woman
and their two children and of commercial Chinaman hair
showed the following results :—
Width  Variation in Human Hairs
Size of Sample 100 Fibers
Dispersion
Average       Variation        Range,
Persons                 Microns       Per Cent        Microns
Father,          Age 45 Years   .. 60.7                22.1                 15- 70
Mother,         Age 38 Years   .. 84.8                 16.4                50-110
Daughter,     Age  7 Years   ..  69.3                20.9                35-105
Age 14 Years   ..58.6                20.9                27-65
Son,              Age  8 Months . 41.7                29.8                18- 70
Age  7 Years   .. 60.2               26.1                12-100
Chinaman,    Mixed   ........ 61.5                 29.8                18-110
Goat  Hair
The hair of the common goat is used mainly in fancy
woolen yarns, in low grade blankets and for carpets.
Similarly to the cashmere goat, the hair covering of the
common goat consists of two distinct types of hairs,
namely, the fine wool hair and the coarse beard hairs.
In their microscopical structure the two types of hair
are closely related to cashmere hair. The medullary
channel is absent in the fine fibers but very pronounced
in the beard hairs, having the continuous form. The
average fineness for the wool hair of samples on hand
was found to be between 13 and 15 microns with a
dispersion range from 8-20 microns. The beard hairs
vary in average diameter from 43 microns for the kid
beard hair, to 102 microns for the adult animal. The
dispersion range for the kid beard hair was found to be
from 15 microns to 90 microns, whereas for the beard
hair of the adult it is from 50 to 200 microns.
The cross-section of the fine hairs is round, while that
of the beard hairs may vary from full-round fibers,
having no or only a small medulla, to oval and elliptical
fiber shape containing large medulla.
Cow   Hair
Cowhair is extensively employed as a low grade fiber
for the manufacturing of coarse carpet yarns, blankets
and felts. It is used in mixtures with wool. Cowhair
nearly always shows the hair root, as the fibers are
removed from the hide by pulling. The coat of the cow
is composed of three kinds of fibers: Thick stiff beard
hairs, soft fine beard hairs and very short, fine wool
hairs.    (See Plate X.)
The epidermis structure is similar to horse hair.
The medulla is quite prominent in the calf's hair but is
smaller and at times fragmental in the cow's hairs.
Fine wool hairs, occasionally found, have no medulla.
In the cross-section, both calf and cow hair show a
full round to oval shape. Characteristic of white hairs
when sectioned is the grainy appearance of the cortex.
The fineness range of the cow hair varies in wide
limits. Measurements made on domestic calf and cow
hair samples showed the following results:—
Width Variations in Cow Hairs
Dispersion
No.           Aver.             Var.            Range
Types                of Fibers     Micron        Per Cent      Microns
Calf—Mixed......    200               36               30.4              15- 75
Cow—Back   ......    100              76               8.4              30-120
Cow—Head   ......    100              81                4.6              40-110
Cow—Tail........     25            187                                 128-230
20
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
FUR FIBERS
Plates XI and XII
While fur fibers are not in the strict sense textile
fibers, various types of fur hairs are employed for effect
purposes in women's and children's wear and in felts
for men's hats.
In the class of animals known as the fur bearers, the
examination of the fur coat discloses the fact that there
is a double set of protective hairs similar to that found
in the fleece of the cashmere goat or of the camel. There
are the long, glossy, strong and elastic beard hairs,
referred to as guard hairs in the fur trade. Surrounding
these are the fine, very soft, smooth, curly and dull fur
hairs. Normally the fur hairs are only 1/2 to 2/3 as
long as the guard hairs. There is a third type of hair,
the intermediary hairs. They are undeveloped guard
hairs, showing partly fur and partly guard hair struc-
ture.
SHAPE: The guard hairs and fur fibers, when
traced along their length are found to be fusiform, that
is, the diameter of the hair is larger in the middle than
at both ends. Both guard hairs and fur fibers have
the same major structural features as the wool fibers,
nimely epidermis, cortical layer and medulla.
MEDULLA: The main difference between wool and
fur hairs is the form of the medullary cells which in the
latter are arranged in a pearl-like or ladder-like fashion
and are known as the discontinuous form of medulla.
Among the various fur fibers, the medullary cells
vary sufficiently in their pattern so that they have
proven to be the best medium for identification and
classification. All examinations should be based on
the middle area, as all parts of the guard and of
the fur hairs are not the same. In the guard hairs these
medullary groups are of two distinct types: the cham-
bered, and the net-like. The first type is quite char-
acteristic for the hairs from the rcdent family, whereas
the net-like form is found chiefly in the carniverous
type. They are arranged in rows from one up to eight
or more.
In the fur hair the medullary groups are arranged
in a single row with cells either round, disc-shaped
or pocket-shaped. Between the medullary cells are
air spaces or vacuoles, which vary in size and shape
in proportion to the size and shape of the medullary
group, which they separate. In the guard hair the
vacuoles are more or less intercellular. The shape of
these vacuoles and the medullary groups form the im-
portant combination that serves to determine the species
to which the hair and the fibers belong.
PIGMENTATION: As in wool and specialty hair
fiber, the color in a fur fiber is caused by the presence
of color pigments, which in the coarse hairs are long and
somewhat oval shape, and in fine hairs nearly round.
Only those fur fibers having some importance in
textiles are described further.    Of the fibers described
and illustrated, the rabbit, hare, beaver, muskrat, and
squirrel belong to the Rodentia family, while the raccoon
and the fox are members of the Carvonica. It may at
times be of advantage to know the zoological relation of
the animals whose fibers are under question as in some
cases hair from related animals will show similar
characteristics,  when  observed  under  the microscope.
Angora Rabbit, Rabbit and Hare Fibers
Over 90 per cent of all fur fibers used in woolen
clothing are selected out of this group. The angora
rabbit hairs are derived from the domesticated, highly
bred animals, and cut or combed from the living specie.
The common rabbit hair fibers are obtained from the furs
of the wild rabbit, which inhabits the northern countries
such as Siberia, Sweden and Canada. The hair is re-
covered in pelteries by means of pulling. These fibers
are relatively easy to distinguish from other fur hairs.
but it is extremely difficult to differentiate between the
various types of rabbit and hare fibers, especially if only
a few fibers are available.
Hare and rabbit fibers differ from each other accord-
ing to Fiebiger in the arrangement of the medullary
cells in the guard hair. In the hare fibers the medullary
rows are always continued and very rarely melt into
each other, whereas in the rabbit hair the rows are
often interrupted and show numerous fused joinings
with neighboring rows. No such differences were
observed by the authors on their samples. Due to the
difficulty in proper determination of the various types
of rabbit and hare they will henceforth be classed as
rabbit hairs.
Microscopical   Structure
FUR HAIR: Longitudinally examined, the fur hair
shows the medullary cells arranged in one column with
each cell separated from the other. In the extremely
fine tapering end the medulla is absent or only evident
as a fine line.    (See Plate XL)
The scale structure is of the coronal type, with one
scale surrounding the fiber completely. The free scale
ends are parallel to each other, either running cross-
wise, like in fine wool, or in twist fashion from right
to left (S twist). Both types can be present in the
same hair. In many instances the protruding edges of
the scales terminate in a sharp point.
The cross-sectional shape of the fur fiber is round,
with the medullary air space in the middle, resembling
doughnuts. Where the scales have the sharp points, the
contour has a more or less ragged appearance. This
can be observed from the photomicrographs.
GUARD HAIRS: The microscopical appearance of
the guard hair is quite different and outstanding from
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
21
most other fur animals.    The medullary cells are ar-            MEDULLA:   The   medulla  of  the  fur  hairs  are
ranged in two or more columns up to eight, and some-         somewhat  finer  than  that   of muskrat.    Toward  the
times more, arranged in a winding or spiral-like form.         tip  of the  fibers,  heavy color pigmentation is found
Starting  with   1-2  medullary  rows   on   the  base  the         and the medulla is reduced to a fine thin line.    The
number increases steadily up to the largest diameter         medulla  cells  are  usually  continuous  and  joined  to-
of the hair, which is normally in the middle or upper         gether.    The cross-section shows the comparative size
half,  then  slowly  narrows  down  from  3  to  2  rows         of the wool hairs to the guard hairs as well as the
and finally at the tip, to a single row.                                 roundness of the former.   The guard hairs are elliptical
The  epidermis   scales  are  very  close  together  and         with a somewhat larger medulla than the muskrat.
arranged in parallel fashion, approximately 18 per 100                                   Raccoon Fur Fiber
microns against 10 in the fur hair.    The cross-section            This fiber differs somewhat from the aforementioned
of the guard hair has a variety of forms ranging from         jn jts cross-section as well as longitudinal shape.    The
elliptical  to the  shape of bone? or dumb-bells.    The         cross-sectional shape is oval.   There is no definite limit
latter form is very characteristic.                                           between the fur and guard hairs> many haying char_
The fineness of the fur hair varies from 8 to  30         acteristics of both.    The contour of the hair is rough
microns and that of the guard hairs from 30 to  ISO         at  times,  pointing  towards  heavy  pronounced  scales
microns.     (See Plate XI.)                                                  easiIy visible in the iongitudinal views.
,..    ,        „      _.,                                          Longitudinal views show the medullary cells arranged
Muskrat Fur Fiber                                   •              ,            ™        „                             ,            ,     . ,
m one column.   The cells are square to elongated, with
EPIDERMIS: The outer structure of muskrat hair         coIor   pigments   between   the   individual   cells.     The
is of little value in identification.    Fur hairs have at         medulla near the base of the fiber is much finer and
their base smooth scale structure, which changes into         tlle cells are more stretched than in the middle.    The
arrow  head  shapes.     The  guard  hairs  have  a  scale         medulla of the raccoon occupies not more than 1/3 of
structure which is repeatedly found on other fur fibers.         t'le fiber.
The free ends are jagged and lie close to the stem.                                    Squirrel Fur Fiber
nf-r^TTT T a     ^,                                                                  Tlle squirrel hair cross-section varies from oval to
MEDULLA:  The medulla of the fur fiber is either         elliptical ;n the fur hairs t0 kk,ney shaped in the bgard
continuous or discontinuous.   Both forms can be found         hairs     The medulla take up considerable room; about
m one fiber.    The medulla cells are long and angular.         1/2 m the fur hairs and about 2/3 in the guard hairs
In the very fine hairs often only a thin line marks the         The chief characteristic of the fibers is the medulla which
presence of the medulla.    Guard hairs have either a         when  the  air  is  removed  from the cells  show  their
single   column   of   flat   cells   or   multiple  columns   of         peculiar shape    The cd,s are a         ed jfl columns ^
polygonal medullary cells.    Dyestuff pigments,  which         are like steps of a ladder     (piate x }
are found throughout the cortex, are also found in the                                      __,_..,
, „                                                                                                                Fox Fur Fiber
medulla.                                                                                                                              .
n?ricc cT7/—rTrMvT     T-i                              i    t            r              *-n  their cross-section,  fox  hairs  are usually round
CROSS-SECTION:   The  cross-sectional  shape   of                     ,     ™           , „         ,                    , /o    ,   *    .
,,     r     ,   •    Vrr     ,-,,i   r           ,,¦   r        T   •    i                     to oval-    ^ he medulla make up over 1/2 of the fiber.
the fur hair differ little frcm rabbit fur.    It is the pro-           A,            ,,            ,        ..        ,   ,    n,     '           ,,      ,
portion of the medulla to the fiber, the fineness as well         At *"? the ^ Olf "e °f ^fibel;S' CaUSed ^ the
as the pigment distribution which make an identification        Protruding srale; can be «»>¦   The f°\ P'S^ts are
by means of the cross-section possible.                                 ?Tt ^^ themfulla as weU as m the medulla
The beard hairs are elliptical, one side usually slightly        °J the fibe/S-    Lonfltudlnal ™ ^ a f°<± *<*¦ *
dented inward.    The epidermis  of  the beard hair is        *e fe °f ,the mf» la to the rest of the ^^    Near
clearly visible as  a heavy layer  in  the  cross-section.         theT b"Se' *e medulla 1S /ery small and interrupted
In the following table the fineness of the fur hair of
Beaver Fur Fiber                                    ^le different species discussed are shown.    They in-
dicate that with the exception of the muskrat, which is
This animal is closely related to the muskrat and the         finer than the rest, the small difference in fineness among
fibers resemble the latter in many ways.    (Plate XII.)         the fur fibers is of little help in identification.
Fineness Analysis of  Various Fur Hairs
Angora            Rabbits                                                                       Silver
_____________Rabbit              Various          Muskrat         Beaver          Raccoon             Fox           Squirrel
No. of fibers............................    400                1000                100                  100                  100                  100              ~loO~
Average microns  ........................      13.2                  14.3                11.7                  15.8                  1S.3                  1S.2                  14 4
Percentage of fibers
From — To
5          10 microns   .....................      IS                   11                  24                     3                    10                     3                     4
10          IS microns.....................      60                   52                  67                   45                   36                   51                   61
15           20 microns   ......................      22                    29                   6                     45                     47                    41                     28
20           25 microns.....................        2                      6                   1                       7                      6                      4                      ?
25           30 microns   .....................        1                       2                   1                     _                    __                      \                      2
22-
TEXTILE  FIBER  ATLAS
SILKS
Plates XIII and XIV
Cultivated Silk
The general term "silk" refers to the filamentous
secretions of the silk worm forming the cocoon of dif-
ferent species of moths. Silk, as usually understood, is
the fiber from the cocoon spun by the larvae of the
mulberry silk worm (bombyx mori.)
In spinning the cocoon the worm secretes a viscous
fluid, the fibroin from two tube-like glands in its body.
The two tubes join into a common exit in the head
of the worm, into which the secretion of two other glands
flows, the sericin or silk gum, which cements the two
fibroin filaments together. Upon emerging from the
spinneret in the head of the worm, the double fiber
coagulates on contact with the air.
When the worm has finished spinning the cocoon
and has changed into the chrysalis stage, the cocoons
are exposed to heat in order to kill the animal before
it changes into the moth which would, by eating through
the cocoon, break the filaments.
Unpierced cocoons yield from 400 to 700 yards of
usable silk, which is obtained on a commercial scale by
the reeling process.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE (See Plate
XIII) : When raw silk is examined under the micro-
scope, the fibers appear in bundles of 8, 10, or more,
always in even numbers, due to the reeling of four or
more double filaments together. The surface structure is
very irregular, consisting of traverse fissures, creases,
and folds, as well as uneven lumps. These markings
occur in the sericin layer and are caused mainly by the
deforming, breaking, and rubbing off of the silk glue
in the reeling operation. The individual double fiber
is easily recognized as the two filaments are normally
joined together and enveloped by the silk glue.
DEGUMMED OR BOILED-OFF SILK: By boil-
ing raw silk in a soap solution, the gum or sericin,
which amounts to 18-23 per cent of the total fiber
weight, is removed and the dual nature, of the filaments
is disclosed. The isolated filaments as seen in the
photomicrograph are smooth and structureless, quiet
regular in diameter and transparent. Occasionally dents,
constrictions and swellings occur in some of the fila-
ments as illustrated by 5 different examples.
Hoehnel is of the opinion that the silk fiber is com-
posed of structural filaments, fused into one another
in such a homogeneous manner that it is very difficult
to recognize them. This view may be upheld by the
following  facts:
The common fault in silk called "lousiness" (see
Plate XIII) was found by Clayton, Wagner and others
to be due to fibrillations or splitting up of the silk
filaments into fibrillae. Clayton reports three different
types: (1) "Key hole" lousiness: In this case there
is a much smaller diameter filament extruded along
with one of the parts of true filaments. This small
filament, completely surrounded by sericin runs parallel
to the main double filament. Wagner found up to IS
such secondary filaments. It is usually broken up
in degumming with the result that it forms small tangled
masses of "louse" at intervals along the thread. The
other two types which are only discerned after the
boiling-off process, are both due to splitting up of the
silk filaments into fibrillae. The most common of the
two types appears to be inherent in certain grades of
silk, whereas the third type is caused by abrasion in
the various processes such as boiling-off, throwing, and
dyeing. Carbonizing with sulphuric acid will also split
up the filaments into fibrillaes.
FINENESS: The widths of the individual filaments,
as measured on commercial samples, are shown in the
table following later. There is not much difference in the
dispersion range but there is quite a difference in the
average. The Chinese silks are from 1-2 microns finer
than the Japanese silks. The average varies between 10
and 13 microns.
CROSS-SECTIONS: The cross-section shape of
the silk fibers is the main characteristic for their proper
identification. The silk fiber cross-sections are elliptical
or triangular in shape, with rounded corners. In raw
silks the two joined filaments normally face each
other with the flat side of the triangle. In the cross-
section four hDer bundles of eight filaments each are
illustrated.
The silk gum forms a coat around the fiber closely
resembling the epidermis of a wool fiber.
Marked differences are observed in the cross-section
shape between the three layers forming the cocoon.
The fiber shafts forming the inner layer are usually
very flat-shaped like a wedge. The middle layer is
more uniform and rounded whereas the outer part
exhibits many irregularities. Similar shape differences
are also found between the middle layer of different lots
of cocoons. When such lots are mixed they pro-
duce two-tone dyeing in fabrics as proven by Men-
nerich and Hougen. In their study they used the
average diameter ratio of the silk filament as criterion.
By diameter ratio is meant the ratio of the largest to
the smallest diameter of a given cross-section. Measure-
ments made on Japanese silk by the U. S. Testing
Co. on 24 lots gave the following results:
Diame ter in Microns         Diameter
Major     Minor       Mean           Ratio
Average of 24 lots....  13.9           9.2           11.5                  151
Lowest    .............  13.1           7.7           10.5                  1.70
Highest   ............. 13.6           9.2           11.4                  1.48
Mennerich and  Hougen found that if the average
difference of diameter ratio exceeds 0.09, two tone dye-
ings become noticeable, and extreme when it exceeds
0.30. This difference in diameter ratio is not noticeable'
to the eye by microscopic examination of cross-sections
except in rare instances such as illustrated by the two
cross-sections, one showing a diameter ratio of 1.64
and the other 2.51 where the difference exceeds 0.8.
TEXTILE  FIBER   ATLAS
23
It can be determined only by statistical measurements
of 100 filaments for each yarn to obtain a desired
accuracy of 1 per cent in the average value.
WEIGHTED SILK: Weighted silk, quite easily
recognized by burning, it may also be studied micro-
scopically. Since metallic salts, used in weighting, are
fixed into rather than on the fiber, not much actual
weighting can be noticed on the surface. It is by
means of microchemical methods, that the presence
and identification of the metal salts can be observed.
Wild Silk
The name applies to silk produced by various wild
living species of moths, respectively their caterpillars.
Due to the fact that such silk worms are not capable
of being cultivated like the mulberry worm, the fibers
obtained from  them arc  called wild silk.
TUSSAH SILK: Commercially the most important
representative of this group is Tussah silk. It is spun
by several Indian species {Bombyx, Mylitta, and
Bombyx Selene) and by a native of China {Bombyx
Pernyi). The latter, according to Huber, feeds on oak
trees and is the producer of the Tussah silk in the
Shantung Peninsula with the city of Chefoo as the cen-
ter, and in Southern Manchuria with Antung as the
center.
The kind and quality of cocoon is largely controlled
by the climate and soil condition in the locality. The
cooler weather of Manchuria produces a darker, heavier
cocoon than is raised in the mild climate of Shantung
with its sandy soil.
The Tussah cocoons differ frcm the mulberry co-
coons in that they contain more gum and also calcium
compounds. This makes it necessary to treat them
chemically in a boiling operation before the filament
can be unwound. In this boiling operation batches cf
10-12 thousand green cocoons are boiled for \J/2 hours
in 25 gallons of soda solution (20 lb. soda to 100 gal.).
The boiling is repeated twice with fresh water without
soda. Including the several rinsing operations and
soaking in warm water the total time for the boiling
operation amounts to approximately 24 hours. The
reeling is then done directly from the semi-dry cocoons
without further soaking, taking 8 as the usual number
of cocoon filaments to form a single thread. The nor-
mal size of the thread produced is 30-35 deniers.
Origin
Silk Width
No. of
Fibers
KURIWATA SILK: Kuriwata silk (chestnut tree
silk) is produced in Japan. It is sold in loose form
as it cannot be reeled. It seems to represent the ex-
treme in fiber size of wild silks. Its color is golden
brown.
MICROSCOPICAL STRUCTURE: The wild silks,
taken collectively, are all similar in their microscopical
structure. It is hard to differentiate between the vari-
ous species. They are distinguished from true silk
in that they are more or less dark colored, having a
ribbon-like form and are strongly fibrillous, with a
wedge shaped cross-section. The photomicrographs
shown on Plate XIV illustrate these characteristics very
well.
LONGITUDINAL VIEW: The Tussah filaments
are of a light tan color, broad, and ribbon-like in shape,
showing pronounced striations running parallel through
the fiber and frequent peculiar markings. These cross-
markings are caused by the overlapping of one fiber on
another before the substance of the fiber had completely
hardened. The striated appearance of wild silk is evi-
dence that structurally the fiber is composed of minute
filaments. They are readily isolated by maceration in cold
chromic acid. According to Hoehnel these structural
elements are 0.3 to 1.5 microns in diameter. There
are also noticed a number of irregularly occurring
coarser striations, which are due to air channels or
spaces between the filaments of the fiber. The cross-
markings can be observed more advantageously under
polarized light between crossed nicols, as a slight varia-
tion in the thickness will cause the appearance of other
interference colors.
CROSS-SECTION: The cress-sectional contour of
Tussah silk is definitely wedge shaped. In raw silk the
two small sides of the wedge facing each other are
surrounded by the silk glue. The filament structure
can be easily observed in the cross-section as a grainy
inner structure of the fiber and the saw-tooth-like con-
tour on some of the fibers.
FINENESS: Microscopical measurements made on
the Tussah as well as on the Kuriwata have proven that
the width measurements made longitudinally are about
equal to the average major diameter of the cross-section.
In the table below the results of the measurements
made on various silks are given:
Measurements
Average      Per Cent        Dis-
Microns      Variation     persion
Canton   ............. 200 China Tram   ........  200 fapanese   Organzinc. .  300 Tussah   (China)    ___ 300 Kuriwata   (Japan) . .    100		10.80 11.75 12.75 28.48 87.42	19.5 24.0 28.2 27.6 14.3	5- 18 3- 21 3- 23 9- 51 50-126
Cross-Section  Measurements No. of         Major      Minor       Aver-Fibers          A              B             age				Diam. Ratio A/B
Silk Japan    ........ 2,400 Tussah    .......       50 Kuriwata   .....       50	13.9 30.5 91.6	9.2 8.6 20.2	11.4 19.6 55.8	1.51 3.55 4.54
24
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
COTTON AND MINOR SEED HAIRS
Plates XV and XVI
All vegetable fibers employed in the textile or allied
industries can be classified into three main types. This
classification is based upon the physiological part of
the plant from which the fiber is obtained or is a part
of:—
/ Vegetable Hairs
II  Bast Fibers of Dicotyledonous Plants
III  Structural fibers of Monocotyledonous Plants
Cotton
GENERAL: The cotton fiber is a single cellular seed
hair of the various species of gossypium (family of
Malvaceae) a plant found in moderate to tropical reg-
ions of the world. It is grown commercially in North
and South America, India, Egypt and China. It was
probably one of the first textile fibers used by man.
MORPHOLOGICAL: During its growth the cot-
ton fiber appears as a thin hollow tube of round cross-
sectional contour made of a thin film, primary cellulose
and, according to Osborne, is encased in an all enclosing
cuticle which bears the natural waxes and oils.
According to Schwarz and Shapiro: "The elonga-
tion and primary-wall deposition are completed in
about twenty days (this time varies with the specie of
the plant and climatic and seasonal conditions). After
this, the formation of the secondary-wall (the major
portion of the cotton fiber) is begun. Each day, a
layer of cellulose is deposited concentrically within the
primary wall. This continues for about twenty-five
days (this is also a variable quantity—late-season cot-
tons continue this secondary growth much longer)."
The cuticle is closely joined with the primary wall
and covers the entire fiber and can be seen as collars
and spirals on the balloon-shaped swollen fiber (Plate
XV). The primary wall, the main body of the fiber
during its growth, consists of cellulose chains whose
long axis E. Berkley, found by means of X-ray diffrac-
tion patterns, to be lying in the traverse direction to
the long axis of the fiber.
Secondary layers of cellulose are composed of fibrils
spiralling about the axis and making angles up to about
25° with it. (See top, Plate XV.) The cellulose mi-
celles are orientated parallel with the axis of the fibrils
but at an angle of 25° to the fiber axis. According
to Osborne these spirals may change at intervals the
direction of their inclination from S to Z twist and
vice versa along the fiber length.   The micro-structure
of the various layers of the cotton fiber, while in part
can be observed with ordinary conditions under the
microscope, can be studied by means of polarized light
or by swelling reactions with cuprammonium hydroxide
or both, as is employed by Hock and Harris.
Similar to animal hair, cotton and other seed hairs
consist of three parts, the root or base, stem and tip.
The root is cone shaped. Toward its free end the fiber
tapers into a fine rounded point.    (See Plate XV.)
FINENESS: Like other textile fibers, cotton varies
in fineness among various species grown as well as
similar species grown in different parts of the world.
The average width may vary from 10 to 40 microns as
is illustrated by the longitudinal and the cross-sectional
views made by United States Department of Agricul-
ture. Width measurements made by the Forstmann
Woolen Co. laboratories on samples from the U. S.
Department of Agriculture gave these results:
Width Measurements of Cotton Fibers
Number   of
Types                          Fibers
Sakellarides    .......200
American
Egyptian
Fine  American   )      9nn
Upland                S   '
Coarse  American   ]   ?qq
Upland                    S
Indian    ............400
Average          Coefficient     Dispersion
Width          of Variation       Range
Microns           per cent        Microns
16.4
16.2
17.1
19.2
21.2
18.7
20.9
22.4
21.2
18.8
8-26
6-26
8-27
8-30
10-33
Cross Sectional Measurements made by Schwarz and
Shapiro are given below :
	Cross	Section	Measurements		
Types	N	umber of Fibers	Major Microns	Minor Microns	Major-Minor ratio
American Egyptian	Upland. Uppers   .	283 296 266 281	23.2 24.7 19.1 21.9	8.75 7.30 7.30 6.65	3.69 5.27 3.22 4.29
Soudan   .					
The major-minor ratio represents the average of a
series of quotients, and not the quotient of the major-
minor average.
In the next table the Dept. of Agriculture, Division
of Cotton Marketing gives average values of area of
cross-section of the whole fiber, of lumen, of wall and
maximum and minimum diameters of fiber and lumen,
and shape factor :—
Average Cross Sectional Features of Cottons In Four Ranges of Fineness
------------     AREAS ,,»     ------------                      ------------------   DIAMETERS „   ------------------
"                                                                                           "              Major
Samples                                                                   Total         Lumen           Net                             Major        Minor        Major        Minor    Minor
Very   fine   ......................      98.90         10.54           88.38                       9.77       1.20       16.73         6.20      3.07
Fine American Upland  ..........     155.26         11.89         143.37                     10.92       1.05      20.02         7.83      2.77
Coarse American Upland  ........    230.05        19.02         211.04                     14.22      1.55      24.97         9.49      2.90
Very coarse Asiatic  .............    374.26        27.49         346.78                     12.53      2.24      27.26       14.57      2.07
Wall
Thick-
2.50
3.39
3.97
6.17
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
25
FIBER MATURITY: If through some internal
cause the growth of the inner cellulose was prevented or
only partly completed, the fiber appears as a thin-walled
flat ribbon with little or no twist at all. The presence of
such fibers indicates poor quality. The industry has de-
veloped micro-methods for testing the degree of ma-
turity of the various types and lots employed. The
extent of maturity is a criterion for the quality of cotton.
The quantitative determination can either be accom-
plished by the swelling reaction or by the polarized
light method. By treating the fibers with caustic soda
the fibers swell and are evaluated by the proportion of
the lumen to the cell walls. The later method is used
by the U.S.D.A. and is adopted as a tentative standard
by the Am.  Soc. for Testing Materials   (D414-37T).
In this method the fibers are treated with 18 per
cent sodium hydroxide solution and examined under the
microscope equipped with a filar micrometer. Thin
walled or immature fiber are such which after swelling
show a fiber wall less than one-half the width of the
adjacent lumen at the widest part of the fiber ribbon.
All other fibers are classed as mature or thick walled
fibers.    Plate XVI shows unswollen and swollen fibers.
The polarized light technique developed by E. R.
Schwarz utilizes the difference in optical properties
between the cuticle and the secondary wall. With this
method four different stages of maturity can be ob-
served and recorded. The fibers are dry mounted by
means of Scotch tape and examined under the polarizing
microscope equipped with a first order red selenite plate
and cross hair eyepiece with the hairs at a 45° angle
with planes of polarization. Preferable magnification is
about 100X.   The method is in part as follows:
"The prepared slide is placed on the mechanical stage of
the microscope, and the stage is rotated so as to bring the
fibers parallel to the 45° cross-hair of the ocular which indi-
cates the additive position of the selenite (i.e., fibers parallel
with slow vibration direction of selenite as indicated by the
arrow on the selenite). In this position, the additive colors
of the second order will be observed. The cotton fibers are
nominally divided into four classes, according to the second
order color displayed; viz., Purple, Blue, Green and Yellow.
"Purple fibers are defined as those which appear purple
or indigo throughout their entire length in the field of the
microscope. Upon rotation of the stage through 90°, they
turn orange. Upon removal of the selenite, they show parallel
extinction.
"Blue fibers are defined as those which are deep blue or
alternate blue and purple. These turn orange-yellow upon
rotation to the subtractive position, and exhibit some de-
gree of parallel extinction upon removal of the selenite.
"Green fibers are those which appear blue-green or alter-
nate blue and yellow.    Upon rotation to the subtractive posi-
tion, they appear yellow-white. No extinction, but only a
slight dimming is noted in the positions parallel to the planes
of polarization.
"Yellow fibers are the fully mature class. These appear
yellow or yellow-green throughout their entire length. They
show practically no change in color on rotation to the sub-
tractive position, and they do not show parallel extinction.
(The greenish yellow fibers are counted-as mature, since the
finest cottons studied tend to appear yellow-green rather
than yellow for the most mature class—however, no really
matured fibers were observed which showed an interference
color lower than yellow-green.)"
ABNORMAL GROWTHS: Among poorer types
of cotton, occasional fibers exhibit irregular wall thick-
ening or out growths. Though not abnormal growths
the so-called "beard hairs" and short fibers adhering to
the seeds belong in this group. Beard hairs are such
which adheres to the narrow end of the seed. Most of
these fibers are taken out during' manufacturing.
Mercerized Cotton
Mercerized cotton is characterized by its high luster
brought about by treatment of the fibers under tension
in a concentrated caustic soda solution. Observed under
the microscope full mercerized fibers resemble silk by
their lack of structural detail. In cross-section they
exhibit a full round to oval shape with the lumen either
as a thin short line or a tiny hole in the center of the
fiber.    Plate XVI.
Minor Seed Hairs
Besides the seed hairs of the Gossypium. some de-
rived from various other plants are utilized. Their
chief use is as stuffing materials.
KAPOK: The most important of these is kapok
used as stuffing of pillows and in life preservers. The
fibers as well as all the other minor seed hairs are
characterized by the poor strength, brittleness and great
bouyancy. In microscopic appearance the fiber is a
hollow, usually air-filled, single cellular tube without
thickenings, tapering into a pointed end. The base is
bulb shaped and has slight thickening and a small
opening. In cross-section the original shape is fully
round showing a thin cell wall. It is extremely difficult
to obtain a good cross-section of the fiber as any
mechanical or forceful handling presses them together.
The average diameter of kapok is 21-30 microns.
PULU: This seed hair is used as a stuffing material
in tropical countries. The fiber is of golden brown
color and extremely weak. It consists of a number
of cells connected with each other by wavy concentric
thickenings. The cross-section is round. Average
diameter ranges from 70-100 microns.
26
TEXTILE  FIBER   ATLAS
BAST FIBERS
Plates XVII and XVIII
The fibers described below are all derived from stems
of dicotylodoneous plants. They are, according to their
importance:
Flax—Linum usitatissimum
Hemp—Cannibas Sativa
Jute—Corchorus capsularis
Ramie—Boehmeria nivea
The differentiation between various bast fibers and
structural fibers is at times very difficult, as in the case
of flax and hemp, and a slightly different approach has
to be made than in the identification of animal fibers.
Structural differences among the vegetable fibers orig-
inating from various plant species are usually very minute
and have to be emphasized by swelling and part dis-
integration of the fibers or by the use of polarized
light. Another quite helpful means for identification
is the presence of non-fibrous parts of the plant of
origin on the fibers in question. These adhering frag-
ments of vegetable matter form an important link of
evidence in tracing the origin of the fibers under ex-
amination. Wiesner and Herzog strongly emphasize
the importance of such fragments as clues or guiding
elements (Leitelemente). Needless to say a quantitative
analysis of different vegetable fibers identified by means
of such fragments is impossible as well as is the chance
of finding such particles in a bleached or otherwise
chemically treated fiber stock.
Most commercial bast fibers are in their raw, un-
bleached state, composed of bundles of bast cells of
considerable length, joined together by thin membranes.
Each cell tapers either into a sharp or somewhat rounded
or forked point on either of its ends. After bleaching
and repeated mechanical operation the bundles are sep-
arated into the individual bast cells. The fissures or
markings found in some fibers are, according to
Schwendener, breaks and pressure marks caused during
the harvesting of the plant and the retting of the bast
as well as during further treatments. Balls observed
such markings or "slip planes" on cotton and believes
they are caused by mechanical action and, further, that
they most likely occur at right angles to the fibrils
making up the fiber. Osborne made the most detailed
study on this subject, i.e., flax, ramie and jute fibers.
Flax
Flax or linen is the best known of the bast fibers. In
its raw state the fibers are in bundles, but after manu-
facturing and bleaching most of the fibers separate and
can be seen as individual bast cells under the microscope.
It may be stated here that a very useful medium
for microscopical examination of all vegetable fibers is a
staining reagent made of iodine solution and glycerol-
sulphuric acid. The preparation and use of this two-
solution stain and swelling reagent, described on page
869 in Matthews' "Textile Fibers," is as follows:
Three grams of potassium iodide are dissolved
in 60 cc. of water and add 1 gram of iodine.   For
use dilute with 10 parts of water. The sulphuric
acid can be prepared by mixing 3 parts of glycerine,
one part of water to 3 parts of sulfuric acid. After
staining fibers in the iodine solution, they are blotted
off the microscope slide and the fibers mounted in
the sulfuric acid.
The use of stains is indispensable in the microscopic
analyses of papers and those fibers most commonly-
used in the paper making industry. The Color Atlas
for Fiber Identification by Graff, published by the
Institute of Paper Chemistry is the outstanding work in
this field. Many of Graff's staining methods may be
successfully applied by the textile microscopist.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE: — Raw flax,
when stained in the above manner is of bluish color
with yellow protoplasmic particles evident in the narrow
lumen. The cross markings or nodes are stained a
deep color and are quite pronounced. Usually a slight
swelling takes place at these joints and fissures. The
cell ends are pointed in most cases, but occasionally
slightly rounded tips are found. When examining flax
under polarized light (crossed nicols) the nodes are
easily observed without stain.    (See Plate XVII.)
Bleached flax shows few structural differences from
the raw fiber except that the color of the latter is white.
All non-fibrous parts found in the raw flax are removed.
The cross-sectional contour of flax is sharp-edged
polygonal, slightly elongated. The lumen is visible
as a small round to oval opening in the fiber center.
When treating the raw fiber with a strong concentra-
tion of ammoniacal copper oxide or cuprammonium
hydroxide, it swells rapidly and eventually goes into
solution. The inner lumen containing the protoplasmic
fragments appears as a wavy thread. On most swollen
fibers a pronounced left thread spiral structure is evi-
dent. Differentiation between flax and cotton is quite
easy by means of staining with iodine and sulphuric
acid. The approximate diameter of the flax cells aver-
ages from IS to 17 microns.
By shaking and rubbing together raw flax fibers and
collecting the debries, the following plant parts or frag-
ments can be seen after immersion in ammonical copper
oxide:—Elongated epidermis cells, wood fibers and
parenchyma cells without crystals.
Hemp
The fiber of the hemp plant (cannibas sativa) is
chiefly used in twine and thin ropes.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE .-—After staining
with iodine and sulfuric acid, the fiber, which is nor-
mally in the raw, unbleached state, is of dirty bluish
green color, also shows the pronounced cross markings,
but usually has a wider lumen than flax. Yellow stained
plasmatic particles in the lumen, seldom found, are
grainy in appearance. The cross-section of the fiber,
while sometimes exhibiting the symmetric contour of the
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
27
flax fiber, is irregular varying from triangular to
polygonal shapes. The corners are much rounder and
softer than in flax. The lumen appears as oval to
elongated hole or thin line in the fiber center.
When treating the fiber with cuprammonium hy-
droxide the fibers swell and dissolve much slower than
flax and the lumen is pushed together giving it a
ruffled appearance. The spiral structure visible in flax is
absent or hardly visible and then the direction of the
spiral is to the right.
Herzog found that by examining hemp and flax fibers
under polarized light, he was able to differentiate be-
tween them by the variation in interference colors under
crossed nicols (fibers in orthogonal position). After
insertion of a selenium plate (Red I), flax shows at 0°
addition colors, at 90° subtraction colors, while hemp
shows at the former position subtraction colors and at
the latter addition colors. It was found that bleached
fibers only partially respond to the above test. The
average fineness of hemp fibers varies from 18-23
microns. Characteristic elements found in raw hemp
are epidermis fragments with pronounced surface hairs.
Ramie
China grass or ramie is derived from the Boehmeria
nivea, a plant commercially utilized in Asia. The bast
fibers of the ramie are much coarser than either the
flax or the hemp fibers.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE:—In longitudinal
view, ramie appears as irregular knotty, often ribbon-
like fiber. Iodine and sulfuric acid stain this fiber a
pure blue. The main characteristics which enable the
differentiation of this fiber from the previously men-
tioned bast fibers are the pronounced diagonal cracks
in the surface and heavy thickening of ramie. Examina-
tion under polarized light clearly shows the cross mark-
ings and cracks.     (See  Plate  XVIII.)
The cross-sectional shape of ramie is similar to cotton,
and could be mistaken for the latter except for its much
larger diameter. The average fineness varies from 30
to 70 microns. The cross-sectional contour varies from
hexagonal to oval shape. Characteristic are the fissures
running from the outer circumference towards the
lumen. These are the diagonal cracks visible on the
longitudinal view of the fibers.
Osborne came to the conclusion that the high
number of fissures or cracks and their shape explains
some of the characteristics of this fiber. They are re-
sponsible for the great reduction in strength from the
theoretically expected strength. It also explains to a
large measure the lack of extensibility and flexibility
of ramie. If the fiber were not so riddled with imperfec-
tions, it undoubtedly would be much stronger and better
spinnable  commercially.
Jute
This fiber obtained from the Corchorus capsularis is
easily distinguished from flax, hemp and ramie. When
stained with iodine and sulphuric acid this fiber shows
a golden yellow to brown color. The fiber is always
found in bundle form even after manufacturing.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE:—The individual
bast cells are very fine, measuring about 15 to 20 microns
and are much shorter than the other bast cells measuring
only 2-3 mm. in length. The lumen of the fiber at vari-
ous intervals narrows to a thin line or disappears com-
pletely. (See Plate XVIII.) Nodes or cross markings
are usually absent, but are occasionally found. The
cell ends vary from spearhead-shaped to tapering,
points. The cross-sectional contour of the cells is
polygonal with a pronounced oval lumen.
Jute—Single Cell—Measurements by Osborne
Ave. cross-sectional area    (total)    .........   118.0 sq. «,    (30)
Ave. cross-sectional area cell wall  .........   108.9 sq. u    (30)
Ave. cross-sectional area lumen   ...........      8.9 sq. «    (30)
Ave. per cent of total area occupied by lumen     7.5%           (30)
Ave. length   ..............................      2.4 mm.      (25)
Ave. width    (filar   micrometer)............     10.0 «         (240)
Ave. width   'x'   cell   (filar   micrometer) ....     10.0 w          (23)
Ave. width lumen of 'x' cell (filar micrometer     3.0 u          (23)
In recent years a treated jute fiber was introduced
by the Lanitin Corporation in the American market.
The product's trade name is "Lanatin." It resembles
wool, and is not to be confused with Lanital, a synthetic
wool made of Casein.
The jute fibers are treated with an alkaline solution,
preferably sodium hydroxide, which removes part of
the substances holding the fiber bundles together and
changes the tan color of the fibers to a light cream.
As seen from the photomicrographs, the fibers still
more or less retain their fundamental characteristics.
FINENESS:—Cross-sectional and width measure-
ments made on fibers of flax, hemp, ramie, and jute
gave the following results:
Cross-sectional Measurements
Number of           Flax            Hemp           Ramie              Jute
Fibers  .........   100                 100                 100                 100
Microns       Microns          Microns       Microns
Average  .....  14.9                18.3                24.3                15.5
Major    ......  16.1                23.6                32.4                18.6
Minor  .......    8.8                13.1                 16.2                12.3
Ratio:
minor :major    1:1.9             1:1.8             1:2.0             1:1.5
Lumen
Average  .......  1.87                4.26                7.92                3.32
Major    ......  3.82                7.30               13.96                4.58
Minor  .......  1.12                0.72                1.85                2.05
Ratio:
minor :major    1: 3.4           1: 10.2             1: 7.5              1: 2.2
Width  Measurements
Co-eff. of      Dispersion
No. of       Av. Width    Variation         Range
Fibers         Microns       Percent •      Microns
Linen   Irish        }
Bleached  Yarn   $    200              15.5              26.9              8—20
Ramie, Combed       200              24.9              31.6             10—47
28
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
STRUCTURAL FIBERS
Plates XIX and XX
The third group of vegetable fibers, as mentioned
before, are the structural fibers obtained from leaves,
leaf stalks and other parts of monocotyledonous plants.
The more commonly used fibers belonging to this group
are:
Sisal  (Agave sisalana)
Manila (Musa Textilis)
New Zealand Flax (Phormium Tenax)
Piassava  (Attalea Funifera)
Raphia  (Raphia Ruffia)
Coir   (Cocos Nucijera)
Spanish Moss (Tillandsia Usneoides)
Of these, sisal, manila and New Zealand flax are
employed chiefly in ropes and twines; Piassava fiber
in brooms; Raphia in plaited textiles; Coir in door
mats; and Spanish Moss as stuffing material for up-
holstery.
In the differentiation between these vegetable fibers,
various aids as swelling, staining, as well as the ex-
amination of non-fibrous particles of the plant, usually
found in unbleached fibers have to be employed. In
the case of the fibers discussed here, the Sisal, Manila
and New Zealand flax cause difficulty in their identifica-
tion while the other fibers are readily told apart from
each other by their color and general appearance.
In all instances the fiber, as found in the commercial
products is composed of one or more fiber bundles
ultimately made of numerous bast cells. In this re-
spect they are similar to the bast fibers such as flax,
hemp, ramie and jute; with the exception, that be-
sides the ultimate bast cells, other structural materials
are found from that part of the plant from which the
fiber was obtained.
Sisal
This fiber is obtained from a number of varieties of
Agave of which the Agave rigida and Agave sisalana
are the two more common species. The color of the
commercial fiber is yellowish white. Its chief use
is for ropes, but it is also employed as a stuffing material
and as a substitute for animal bristles in low grade
brushes.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE: The cross-
sectional shape of the fiber bundle is crescent though
also oval bundles are found. The individual cells have
a sharp polygonal shape with a pronounced oval to
circular lumen.
In longitudinal view the bundle does not show many
characteristics and the fiber cells should be separated
by boiling in a 1-2 per cent solution of caustic soda.
After separation the single cells, which according to
Herzog are 1-5 mm. in length and average 24 microns
in width, can be observed. The cell end is usually
blunt and at times forked as shown in Plate XIX. The
wide lumen  can  easily be  seen.    No cross-markings
were observed on the samples examined. Spiral shaped
sclerenchyma tissues are frequent. These spiral vessels
and parenchyma cells contain single oxalate crystals
up to 0.5 mm. long. By igniting the fiber and examining
the ash microscopically these crystals of calcium oxalate
are found, thus furnishing a means of identification.
(See Plate XIX.)
Manila Hemp (Also Called Abaca)
This fiber obtained from the Musa textilis is chiefly
produced in the Philippines. It is one of the most im-
portant of all structural vegetable fibers and is used in
ropes of all types but chiefly for marine cordage, as it
has greater resistance to salt water than sisal. Its
natural color is yellow to reddish yellow.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE: The cross-
sectional contour of manila differs from sisal in that
the fiber bundle is of oval to round shape and never of
crescent form. The cells are of soft round polygonal
to oval contour. The lumen is large and usually cor-
responds to the shape of the fiber contour.
Similar to sisal the cells have to be separated with
caustic soda to observe their characteristics longitudinal-
ly. The fiber ends are long tapering to a fine point.
Occasionally granular matter is found in the lumen.
Highly characteristic of manila hemp are the strongly
silicified tabular cells, the so-called stegmata which
surround the fiber bundles for the most part in single
rows. By macerizing the fiber in chromic acid or by
ashing them, the stegmata remain behind forming
what resembles strings of elongated beads. See Plate
XIX.   The ash of fibers is dark grey to black.
New Zealand Flax
This fiber, obtained from the leaves of the flax lily
Phormium tenax, is employed in twines and ropes.
The color of the fiber is brownish yellow.
MICROSCOPIC APPEARANCE: The cross-
sectional contour of the bundle is oval to round. The
individual fibers vary from circular to oval-polygonal
contour with a lumen that is usually small and circular.
The fibers are more readily separable mechanically
or chemically than sisal and manila.
When examined longitudinally the fibers which aver-
age about 16 microns in fineness exhibit a fine tapered
end. A large amount of parenchyma and epidermis
fragments are characteristic of this fiber. When ignited
the fibers leave a brownish ash.
As all of the three fibers mentioned are employed for
cordage products, it is essential to be familiar with the
means of differentiating between them. In the following-
table the principal physical and microscopic character-
istics for differentiation are given.
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
29
Sisal
Color   of  Fiber..............   Yellowish white
Color of Ash after Burning..   Grayish  white                    ¦- -
Cross-Section of Fiber Bundles   Crescent shape
Sewett    Test    (Chlorine   and
arnm. fumes)   .............   Cherry   red
Special   characteristics    ......   Calcium oxalate crystals in ash
Manila
Yellow to reddish yellow
Dark gray to black
Oval to round
Brown
Stegmata in ash
New Zealand Flax
Brownish  yellow
Grayish brown to dark brown
Oval to round
Sometimes   red
Numerous  spirals  and other non-
fibrous   matter  on  fibers
Cross-Sectional Measurements
Sisal          Manila New Zealand Flax
Number of Measurements. 100               100               100
Fiber:
Microns        Microns      Microns
Average   ..............14.8              17.0              13.0
Major   ...............  18.0             20.0              15.1
Minor   ...............  11.6              14.0              10.8
Major
Ratio------—    ..........    1.5S              1.43              139
Minor
Lumen:
Microns       Microns      Microns
Average   .............    4.6               5.4                3.7
Major   ...............    6.5               6.7                4.9
Minor   ...............    2.7               3.6                2.5
Major
Ratio--------...........    2.4               1.86              1.97
Minor
Width Measurements
Sisal          Manila  New Zealand Flax
No. of Measurements.....200              200              200
Microns       Microns      Microns
Average   ...............  19.3              17.6              16.3
Percentage of Fibers
from
10.15 microns   ........  16                28                40
15-20 microns   ........ 48                47                46
20-25 microns   ........ 27                19                13
25-30 microns   ........    9                  6                  1
Piassava
The fiber is obtained from the Piassava palm grown
in Brazil and Africa. The commercial fiber is thick
varying from 0.8-3.5 mm. and is of brown to black color.
It is employed in brooms. When examined microscopi-
cally the fiber cross-section show an oval to bean shape
contour. The cells are tightly packed and have a
polygonal shape. By macerizing the fiber in chromic
acid small round to star shape silicous stegmata are
found.
Raphia
The fiber is obtained from the cuticle of the leaves of
the raphia palm.    The commercial product is in the
form of flat straw colored strips.
The cross-section (Plate XX) shows the cuticle with
the bast cells bundles arranged at intervals along the
inner wall of the cuticle.
Coir
From the outer husk of the cocoanut the coir fiber is
obtained. Its color is brown to reddish brown and its
chief use is in mattings and cheaper ropes. The com-
mercial fiber is short when compared to other struc-
tural fibers. Its length average about 10 inches. The
cross-sectional contour is full round. In the middle
of the bundle usually a hollow space is observed. (See
Plate XX). Longitudinal examination of the fiber cells
which are short—0.4-1 mm. in length show a spiral
structure in the lumen as well as occasional plate like
stegmata at the cell tips. These stegmata cells are easily
visible in the ash of the fibers.
Spanish Moss
Tillandsia or Spanish Moss found hanging from
trees in Louisiana and other Southern states is used as
stuffing material. The entire plant is employed for this
purpose and only the cuticle and small protrusions are
peeled off. This fiber is easily identified microscopically
by its color which varies from grey to dark brown and
its general appearance. The cross-sectional contour of
the fiber varies from oval to round. Characteristic ele-
ments found on the fiber are the thin fan shaped scales.
FINENESS: Width and cross-sectional measure-
ments made on Sisal, Manila, and New Zealand Flax
are tabulated in the foregoing table. For the width
measurements, the fibers were separated with a very
weak solution of caustic soda.
30
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
RAYONS
Plate XXI and XXII
The generic term "rayon" refers to filaments made
from various solutions of modified cellulose by pressing
or drawing the cellulose solution through an orifice
and solidifying it into the form of a filament. (A.S.T.M.
definition.) As a cellulosic fiber, they are generally
classified as vegetable fibers. Rayon is marketed in
two forms, namely as continuous filament yarn and as
staple fibers of spinnable length. The rayon staple fiber
may be manufactured directly or by cutting continuous
filaments.
Four distinct manufacturing processes are used to
produce the following filaments named in the order of
their commercial importance:
1.  Viscose Rayon—Filaments composed of regenerated
cellulose, which have been coagu-
lated or solidified from a solution
of cellulose xanthate.
2.  Acetate Rayon—Filaments  composed   of   an   acetic
ester of cellulose, which has
coagulated or solidified from its
solution.
3.  Cuprammonium Rayon—Filaments composed of re-
generated cellulose which has
been coagulated or solidified
from a solution of cellulose in
ammoniacal copper oxide.
4.  Nitro  Rayon—Filaments  composed  of  regenerated
cellulose (denitrated nitro cellu-
lose) which has been coagulated
or solidified from a solution of
nitrated cellulose.
All varieties are made in three grades, according
to their luster, namely, bright, semi-dull and dull. The
degree of luster depends upon the amount of pigments
present such as titanium dioxide.
The original object in developing and manufacturing
rayon was to imitate real silk. This is now outlived and
the material occupies a unique position of its own.
However, the fineness of the filament yarns as well as
the rayon fibers are expressed in denier.
MICROSCOPICAL APPEARANCE:
The booklet on rayon identification of the American
Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists in 1934,
contains the following statements: "Rayons are most
easily, quickly and positively identified by means of a
microscopic examination, we recommend that this method
be used, whenever possible. A microscopic examina-
tion of rayon is very simple and cam, be successfully car-
ried out by men previously unfamiliar with the use of
the microscope after a few hours' practice."
The media for mounting regenerated cellulose rayons,
i.e., viscose, and cuprommonium may be either glycerine,
colorless mineral oil, (refractive index about 1.46), or
monobrom naphthalene  (refractive index about 1.66) :
and for acetate rayon decane   (refractive index 1.41).
Viscose Rayon: The filaments as well as the staples
are made in finenesses ranging from one to twenty de-
nier. In its longitudinal view, a multitude of striations
running along the direction of the fiber axis, is charac-
teristic. These striations are visible even in the dull
filaments, where the presence of pigment shows up in
numerous black dots. When water is employed as an im-
bedding medium, the fibers swell 25 to 40 per cent.
(See measurements.)
The cross section may vary greatly in shape from fully
round to ribbon-like forms. The factors responsible
for their shape are the nature and strength of the coag-
ulated bath, the size of the orifices and the difference in
the stretching after coagulation. The chief characteristic
of the viscose cross section is the strongly serrated con-
tour. Some of the latest wool-like viscose rayon staples
are exceptions, as they are nearly circular with a smooth
contour.
Acetate Rayon: This fiber is somewhat different in
its chemical property from the viscose, due to its
cellulose compound nature. In its microscopical longi-
tudinal view striations similar to viscose rayon are pres-
ent. However, their occurrence is less numerous but
more pronounced than in viscose. Usually from 2 to 3
pronounced striations are characteristic in acetate rayon.
Quite a high percentage of the acetate rayon staple show
twist formations as illustrated in Plate XXI. Acetate
rayon swells less than 10 per cent in water.
There is a distinct difference between the cross sec-
tion of an acetate fiber and viscose fiber. The acetates
vary from kidney to cloverleaf-like shapes with the
contours smooth and round.
Cuprammonium Rayon: Microscopically this fiber re-
sembles closest the structure of the silk. Longitudinally
the filaments appear as fine structureless fibers without
striations. Only occasionally faint striations may be ob-
served. In their cross-sectional shape the fibers varj
from a circular to a slightly irregular oval shape similar
to a fine wool cross section. The contour is very
smooth.
Nitro Rayon: Nitro cellulose rayon is no longer pro-
duced in the United States and is therefore of minor
importance here. In its microscopical appearance this
fiber is similar to acetate rayon. It can be distinguished
from the latter by means of stains such as iodine, which
stains nitro rayons dark brown, while it stains acetates
yellow.
Rayon Staple Fibers
The rayon staple fibers generally have the same
microscopical characteristics as the continuous fila-
ments of the same variety. But as rayon staple fibers
are mainly employed in blends with various natural
fibers, spun with different types of spinning equipment,
TEXTILE  FIBER  ATLAS
31
D
it is necessary to make them in their physical make-up
as closely as possible to the natural fibers. Because of
this use, the fibers are at present produced in a number
of standard diameters and lengths to suit the various
fibers they are blended with, such as cotton and wool.
For mixtures with cotton, the preferred sizes are 1/-2
and 3 denier with staple lengths below two inches. The
most common length is 1J4" to 1 9/16". For the wool
industry the denier sizes are chosen according to the
wool grade. The most common sizes are 3, 4 and 5
deniers. Any length is available but the most common
staple lengths are 3, 4, and 6 inches.
In the last few years the wool type rayon staples un-
derwent radical changes. One was the introduction of
crimp, as in the Teca staple of Tennessee Eastman,
another the broadening of the diameter variation, a third,
the changing of the cross-section shape more to a cir-
cular one to eliminate dirt retention.
DETERMINATION OF DENIER SIZE: To es-
tablish the fineness or size of the fiber, the width or the
cross-section method can be used. The cross-section
method is the preferred method of the American Society
for Testing Materials, and described in their tentative
method of testing rayon staple, Designation D 540-39-T.
In this method the cross section is projected on a graph
tracing sheet, magnification x 1,000. The outline of at
least 25 different fibers is traced for each sample to be
measured. From this tracing the area is determined by
counting the number of square millimeters enclosed by
the tracing outline. The average denier per fiber is
then calculated as follows:
A x S x K
CALCULATION:  Denier, per fiber = —
M2
where:
A   = average   observed   area   in   square   millimeters,
S   = specific gravity of the sample,
M = linear magnification, and
K = a constant numerically equal to 9,000.
Note:—The constant K is the theoretical denier of
a fiber having a specific gravity of 1.0, and a cross-
sectional area of 1 sq. mm.
The cross section photomicrographs as illustrated on
Plate XXII show that the differences from one denier
size to the next one are in most instances so great that
by simple comparison an unknown sample may be de-
termined.
In order to bring out the outline more distinctly some
of the fibers are dyed. In doing this the dyestuff often
does not penetrate the fiber fully, therefore the contours
are much darker than the inside of the fibers. All cross
sections were made with Hardy's fine cross-section de-
vice and imbedded in collodium. As collodium to a
certain degree attacks the surface of the actate fibers,
as can be seen in the twenty denier Teca, the interior
of the fiber is strongly corrugated. This corrugation
should not be taken as a characteristic.
WIDTH MEASUREMENTS: Whereas the cross
section measurements are close to the theoretical value,
the width measurements of the viscose and acetate
rayons are considerably higher as seen from Table I.
The theoretical curves of acetate and viscose differ
because of the difference in the specific gravity, viscose
1.52, acetate 1.33. The actual measurements of both
fibers form an identical curve. The reason for the
difference  is   the   uneven   shape   of   the  rayon  fibers.
TABLE I
Theoretical   and   Actual  Width   of   Rayon   Staple
Fibers
Number of  Fibers  200;  Medium—Glycerine  C.P.
			Standard	Standard	
Denier	Theoretical	Aver.            Deviations		Error	Percent
Size	Microns	Microns	Microns	Midrons	Variabilit
		Acetate Staple	Fibers*		
3	17.8	19.55	2.48	.17	12.6
5	23.0	25.17	3.40	.24	13.5
8	29.1	32.88	3.91	.27	11.8,.
12	35.7	40.03	5.87	.41	14.0
16	41.2	45.00	6.43	.45	14.0
20	46.1	51.55	7.51	.53	14.5
		Viscose   Staple	Fibers**		
1.5	11.8	14.45	2.16	.15	14.0
3	16.7	20.55	2.35	.16	11.4
5.5	22.6	27.35	3.40	.23	12.4
10	30.6	36.80	5.25	.37	14.2
20	43.2	49.45	6.95	.48	14.0
*Teca	Staple.				
**American Viscose Corp.					
		TABLE	II		
Percent of Water Swelling of Rayon Fibers
Average Width of 100 Fibers
	Rayon  Filaments	
		Am.   Vise.   Co
	DuPont	Tenasco
	Cordura	Bright
Sample	100   Dr.   40   F.	40 Dr. 18 F.
Glycerine microns	17.60	17.8
Water microns	24.50	23.7
Percent Swelling	36.8	32.9
Rayon  Staples
Dupont       Am.   Vise.   Co.      DuPont      Tenn.   East.
Viscose                Fibro               Acele             Teca
3   Dr.   Dull 5.5   Dr. Bright   3   Dr.   Br.  5   Dr.   Dull
Glycerine  microns         20.85           27.35           20.95           25.17
Water microns              26.77           39.50           22.30           27.57
Percent   Swelling         28.39           44.42            6.44            9.53
Acetate is more circular than viscose. Therefore
actual data are closer to the theoretical figures.
Width measurements of staple rayons of different
diameters were made according to the standard method
for fineness of wool.
By measuring the width, the fact that the fibers are not
round is disregarded and it seems that we are mostly
measuring the major diameter of the fiber and therefore
the difference in the case of the viscose fiber.
Where staple rayons are blended with wool, it is
important to know the exact relationship between the
denier size and the various rayons and the wool grades.
Various charts were recently published to show for the
convenience of the trade, on the basis of curves, the
deniers and their corresponding diameters in microns,
based on theoretical circular cross-sections.
A similar chart showing not only the relationship
between viscose and acetate rayon, but also nylon and
glass fibers was especially prepared for this Atlas and
illustrated on page 36.
32
TEXTILE  FIBER  ATLAS
PROLONS AND SYNTHONS
Plates XXIII and XXIV
Prolons
The man-made protein fibers refer to filaments or
staple fibers made from various solutions of modified
proteins by pressing or drawing the protein solution
through orifices and solidifying it into the form of a
continuous filament. The proteins used are: (a) Casein
(milk), (b) Soya bean protein, (c) Zein (corn), (d)
Fibroin  (silk).
Casein Fibers
Probably the most extensive research was made on
the possibilities of producing fibers from milk casein.
The first fiber of this class produced on a commercial
scale originated in Italy. It was introduced in 1935
under the trade name of "Lanital." Today casein fibers
are produced commercially in several European coun-
tries as well as in the United States and marketed under
the trade names such as: Lanital (Italy), Aralac
(United States of America), Lactofil (Holland) and
Tiolan (Germany).
LANITAL: As mentioned previously, this fiber
was the first of its kind and introduced as "synthetic
wool." Small amounts of this product were imported
into this country previous to Italy's entry into the war.
Microscopical Appearance: Longitudinally the fibers
are very even in width, showing a rough surface with
small dots and faint longitudinal streaks. The cross-
sections are nearly circular and highly uniform. Occa-
sionally a number of small indentations or notches are
observed around the cross-sectional contour.
ARALAC: In this country various concerns are ex-
perimenting with casein fibers. Aralac, a product of the
Atlantic Research Associates, Inc., was introduced in the
Spring of 1940. The fiber is made in two forms, natural
and opaque or delustered.
Microscopically the fiber differs little from Lanital.
In its longitudinal view faint striations and a grainy
surface are characteristic. The difference, between
the natural and the pigmented fibers is very marked
as may be seen from Plate XXIII. The cross-
section is highly circular, but the contour is perfectly
smooth with no notches present. Where an inner
channel is present it is seen as a perfectly circular
hole in the center of the fiber.
SOYA BEAN FIBER: This fiber was first in-
troduced to the American people at the New York
World's Fair of 1939 at the Ford exhibit. Its base is
a protein of the soya bean produced by the Drackett
Product Co.. Cincinnati, under the trade name of Alysol
protein. In its microscopical appearance as seen from
Plate XXIII, the fiber is very similar to Aralac and
Lanital.
Proper differentiation of soya bean and casein fibers
is possible on the basis of their variation in the amino
acids present by qualitative color reactions, as reported
by Williams and Tonn.
Fineness: The high circularity of the casein and soya
bean fiber makes the accurate diameter determination
easily possible by the width as well as the cross-section
method. In all width measurements glycerine should
be employed as the imbedding medium to avoid any
swelling. Width measurements made on various sam-
ples are as follows:
Lanital                         Aralac Top
Top            1                2             3              4        Soya Bean
Loose
Tvpe                     4 Den.        Lab.            Oil         Dry           Oil           Lab.
Dull       Sample      Combed  Combed     Combed     Sample
20           24             .28
Microns Microns    Microns
Ther-      Ther.
molized  molised
Xo. of Fibers.200         200         200         200         200         200
Average .... 24.3      11.4          21.5        23.9        27.9        26.8
Standard
Deviation   .    3.65        0.9          3.05        4.29        4.47        2.04
Coefficient of
Variation    .  15.0%      7.9%     14.2%     18.0%     16.0%       7.6%
The data indicates that the variation in the fiber
sizes is similar to the variation found in rayons. In
the determination of the swelling in water and N/10
caustic soda, there is an excellent tool in studying the
state of the fiber in regard to its properties, such as
strength, because the lower the swelling in the various
mediums, the better the fiber. Swelling measurements
made on various samples with water and caustic soda
gave the following results:
Type                                Lanital               Aralac Top                           Soya
Top, 1937                                                          Bean
Dull         Regular       Dull           Dull         Regular
Ther-
molised
Glycerine, microns.. 25.2 21.5 20.5 20.6 26.6
Water, microns ... 28.0 23.8 23.2 23.4 32.8
n/10   Caustic   Soda,
microns   .........  36.75       29.0         27.8         26.8         43.6
Per   Cent   Swelling:
Water %   .......  11             10.6         13.4         13.4         23.0
n/10 Caustic %   ... 46            34.9         35.6         29.9         63.5
REGENERATED SILK: This fiber was first heard
of in 1937. The country of origin is Japan where it
is obtained by dissolving silk wastes, such as broken
cocoons, in a suitable medium and re-solidifying it in a
manner similar to the casein and rayon fibers. The
few samples imported into this country at that time
were found of very low strength and high brittleness.
Microscopical examination shows the filaments to be of
ribbon-like shape with strong striations running along
the length of the fiber. Occasionally some of the fibers
are twisted similar to Tussah silk. The cross-section
of the fiber reveals the unique narrow ribbon shape.
The longitudinal striations are caused by the folding up
of these ribbons.
Cross-section measurements made on two samples
were as follows:
Type                                                          60 Denier,                   1500 Denier,
125 Filaments               500 Filaments
Major  diameter   .............. 20 microns             45 microns
Minor diameter  ...............    3 microns              9 microns
_    .      Major                                , _                         „.
Ratio:   —-----.................    6./                         5.0
Minor
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
33-
Synthons
Recently two fibers, nylon and vinyon, have been
introduced in the market, which can be classified as
purely synthetic fibers.
NYLON: Nylon is the first really synthetic textile
fiber that has found practical use. The fiber is produced
by the E. I. du Pont de Nemours Co., and is covered
by United States Patent No. 2,130,948, granted Septem-
ber 29, 1938.
The basic principle of the process is the condensation
of ammo acids through extensive heat treatment result-
ing in a hard, opaque molten mass. This mass is capable
of being spun into a continuous filament similar to the
spinning of glass.
Microscopic Characteristics: In their longitudinal view
as seen on Plate XXIV the filaments appear very even
in width over the whole length and smooth like a glass
rod, showing no surface structure or sign of any twist.
The dull filaments show the same characteristics with
the exception that pigments—titanium dioxide—are
present. The cross-sections of dull and bright nylon
fibers are circular and extremely uniform in their
diameter. The contours are absolutely smooth and not
corrugated. The dispersion of the pigments in the dull
nylon filaments is similar to that in a medium dull
rayon. In their general microscopic characteristic nylon
fibers closely resemble the filament of cuprammonium
rayon.
Fineness: Nylon filaments, according to the patent,
can be drawn to any desirable size from less than 10
microns (1/2500 of an inch) up to several hundred
microns depending on the use, either as a regular fiber
for textiles or for the manufacturing of bristles. The
fineness of the single filaments of the three samples
tested gave the following characteristics:
Fineness Characteristics of Nylon Filaments
Type                                            Nylon 45 Dr.  Nylon Neophil
__________                                       Yarn              195 Dr.             Nylon
Luster               Luster              Dull
No.  of I- ibers.............   100                100                100
Average Microns  .........    18.53              19.97             24.52
Standard Deviation—microns     1.00               1.25                 1.25
Variation   ................      5.4%              6.3%              5.1%
The measurements reflect the extraordinary uniform-
ity of this new fiber, which is indicated by the low
variation of 5 to 6 per cent against 8 to 10 per cent in
the most uniform rayons and 17 per cent and up for
natural  fibers  such as  silk and wool.
VINYON: Vinyon was originally made by Carbide
& Carbon  Chemicals  Corporation and  described  in a
U. S. Patent, No. 2,161,766, granted to Rugeley, Field
Jr. and Conlon in 1937. Later in 1939, the American
Viscose Corporation took up the manufacture of the
filament yarn and textile fiber.
Vinyon is produced by polymerization of vinyl chlo-
ride or vinyl acetate. The raw polymer in the form of a
white fluffy powder is dispersed in acetone and a
dope is obtained containing 23 per cent of the co-
polymer by weight. After filtering and deaerating, this
solution is spun the same as acetate rayon and coagulated
by the dry or warm air process.
Microscopical Appearance: When viewed under the
microscope longitudinally, the fibers in their natural
form resemble mercerized cotton with a lumen-like
channel running through the middle of the fiber with
occasional twist. The illusion of a lumen is caused by
the peculiar cross-section shape. At 500 magnifications,
the two thick ends cast a shadow as shown on the right
side of the cross-section. The delustered fiber as shown
on the left side of the cross-section on Plate XXIV
shows a somewhat rough surface structure. By examin-
ing vinyon in organic solvents, for example in bromo-
napthalene, the fiber gradually dissolves by disintegrat-
ing first into splinters which, as they diminish more
and more, start to undulate.
Fineness: Measurements made on three samples gave
the following results:
Vinyon Fineness Measurements
Types ....................     1                  2                   3
ST         HST
No. of Fibers  ............. 200                100                100
Average Width, microns___    18.47              16.77              16.72
Standard Deviation  ........      5.97               3.23               4.03
Coefficient   of   Variation.....    32.4%          31.19%          24.1%
Cross-Section:—
Major Diameter, Microns..    17.7
Minor   Diameter,   Microns.      3.7
.      Major
Ratio   -—----.............      4.7
Minor
It is interesting to note that the average width on
the first sample of 18.5 is very close to the average
diameter 17.7. This proves that all the fibers lie on
their broad side.
Swelling of Nylon and Vinyon
Average  of 100 Fibers
Glycerine         Water           Per Cent     n/iO NaOH        Per Cent
Microns        Microns          Swellinq         Microns          Swclliita
Nylon   ..  18.5          18.6           + 0.54          18.6          + 0 54
Vinyon   .  18.5          16.2          —12.44
HST... 16.7          16.0          —4.20          18.4          +10.17
The synthetic fibers are the only ones which do not
swell in water. Vinyon even seems to do the opposite.
The explanation of this may be the curling of the ends.
34
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
MINERAL FIBERS
Plate  XXV
There are two mineral fibers of commercial textile            THE FIBER GLASS STAPLE FIBERS have av-
importance, namely, asbestos and glass.                              erage lengths of about nine  inches  with the longest
Asbestos                                           individual fibers up to fifteen inches. The staple fibers
The principal and, strictly speaking, the only mineral         are  gathered  first  as   a  webbing  and  then  drafted
fiber is asbestos, which occurs in nature as a mineral         slightly to form a sliver, the draft functioning to draw
of that name.    It is a fibrous silicate of  magnesium         the fibers into a substantially parallel alignment. The
and calcium, though often containing iron and aluminum         silver,  thus  formed, may be given a slight twist to
in  its composition,  especially in  the dark-colored va-         become  a  roving or  further drafted and twisted  to
rieties.                                                                                 form a yarn of the desired size. Such yarns are not
The composition of asbestos from different parts of         lustrous as they have a slight fuzziness similar to that
the world differs considerably.  Canadian asbestos  is         of cotton or worsted yarns, which they resemble,
considered   best,   and   provides   about   75%   of   the            MICROSCOPICAL    CHARACTERISTICS:    In
world's  consumption  of  this  material.   The  asbestos         their longitudinal view as seen on Plate XXV, the fila-
mineral though in the form of a hard rock, can be         ments  are  perfectly  even  in  width  over  the  whole
easily separated into  slender white fibers sometimes         length   and   absolutely   smooth,   showing  no   surface
inclining toward a greenish color.    See Plate XXV.              structure at all and no twist. The cross sections are
MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERISTICS.—The in-         perfectly circular. The diameter variation lies between
dividual fibers of asbestos are so fine as to surpass         15% and 20%, which is above other man-made fibers
the  limits  of  microscopic  fiber measurements.  They        such as nylon and the various rayons.    Because of the
measure less than half a micron and it is impossible        hardness  of  the  glass   and  its  brittleness   it   is  quite
to record them on a wedge ruler at 500 magnification.         difficult to  produce good  cross-sections.
The  fibers  cling  together  in  bundles.  Where  these            FINENESS -Continuous filament and staple fiber
bundles are reduced to a few fibers it was found that         yams are each ma(k at pr£Sent [n ^ filament diam_
they are naturally arranged in a twist-like formation.         £ters as giyen in tfie foUowing tables.
Owing   tO   the   extreme   fineness   Of   the   individual                                 Average Fiber                               Average Fiber
fibers it is difficult to  determine their proper form.                            Di"cZiJ^ches                        Diameterinjnches
At the present time a variety of fabrics are manu-       «*•     ^ - ^     **£*»     ^ *   ^
factured  from  asbestos  fiber.  On account of  its in-              e          0.00026     0.0003            G          0.00036      0.0004
combustible nature, and as it is a very poor conductor                G          0.00036     0.0004             J           0.00046      0.0005
of heat, it is made into fabrics, in which these quali-             The high transparency makes glass fibers difficult to
ties are especially desired.                                                           measure because of the lack of contrast in the regular
Glass Fiber                                        imbedding medium such as water and glycerine.   It was
The spinning of glass into fibers is not particularly         found  that   by  using  a  water   solution   of  methylene
new. The Venetian Glass makers of Merano produced         blue that sufficient contrast is obtained to make good
the exquisite lace glass, the highest development of         measurements.
thread glass in the 16th century. Spinning glass for                 Diameter Measurements on Glass Fibers
commercial uses is a twentieth century achievement,                      T                       _„„
it started in Venice around 1920.  In the United States,         Number of Fibers......... 100              100              150
the  Owens-Corning  Fiberglas  Corporation  has built          Microns:
up an important fiber glass industry.                                                 5_10   .................   91%               51%               _
The manufacture of fiber glass, is, in essence, quite               I0"15   .................     7%               48%               42%
simple.   The  glass   is   first   formed   into   small  balls,               20-25   ...'.'..'..'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.   —                   —"                Sf%
about the size of marbles. Next the glass is melted,            25-30   .................                                        1%
pulled out,  forced through tiny holes   (spinnerettes)               $%^T. .""V.     L56            ^            'IS
and solidified on contact with air.                                                Standard Error u .....     0.16               0.16               0.20
Fiber glass is made in two basically different types              Variation   .............    19.4%            16.1%            15.6%
of textile fibers: continuous filament yarn and staple             WMth measurenie"ts made on three glass staple fiber
fiber.                                                                                             yarns   of   the   Owens-Corning   Fiberglas   Corporation,
THE   FIBER   GLASS   CONTINUOUS   FILA-          §ave the resuIts shown in the above table.
MENT YARN is made in unbroken lengths, limited              USES   OF   FIBER   GLASS :—Fiber   Glass   was
only  by  problems   of  packaging.   The  filaments  are          originally produced mainly for filters such as air filters,
drawn 200 or more at a time  (occasionally 102)  to         laboratory filters and for insulation purposes.   The first
form a strand, which  is  subsequently given a twist         yarn spun was for covering electric wires and for air-
and plied with other strands to form yarns of various          plane coverings.   Today the yarn is also used to produce
constructions. These yarns have a high luster and are         ignition cables, awning materials, neckties, table cloths,
exceedingly smooth.                                                                   and draperies.
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
35
Wool  Grades  Versus Denier
In order to facilitate the selection of the proper types of vis-
cose, acetate, or nylon staple fiber to blend with any given grade
of wool, we have prepared the accompanying chart. (See also
chart on page 37.) The values are weighed for specific gravity
according to Mennerich's formula:—
Denier = .000706 D2  (Density)
and give theoretical values since they are based on the assump-
tion that all the fiber cross-sections are circular. From this
chart, the type of viscose, acetate or nylon to blend with wool
on either the comparable basis of diameter (micron thickness)
or of the comparable weight basis (denier) may be read directly.
For example, reading horizontally, for the same thickness, 23.3
microns, which is the average width of a 62's wool, the corre-
sponding denier sizes are:
Viscose   .........................  5^2 denier
Acetate   ......................... 5     denier
Nylon   ..........................  414 denier
Reading vertically, the 62's wool is equal in denier size to a
21.5 microns Viscose
22.9 microns Acetate
24.8 microns Nylon
The curve of the glass fiber was only used to illustrated fur-
ther the influence of the specific gravity on the diameter size of
the fibers.    The following specific gravities were used:
Wool   .............................  1.30
Viscose   ............................  1.52
Acetate   ...........................  1.33
Nylon    .............................  1.14
Glass   ..............................  2.50
The values obtained with the width method, using glycerine
as the imbedding fluid do not correspond with the theoretical
values in the case of viscose and of acetate rayons, as already
discussed under "rayons."' In order to find the correct micron
values, the actual values have to be multiplied by the following-
correction  coefficients:
Viscose
Acetate
.832
.902
O     I    2
4    5    6
8     9     (0    I'l
DENIER
36
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
W
M
fa
W
H
X
w
H
fa
O
W
2
fa
O
fa
w
u
w
>
O
						k								
														I
				—   "*		1								
						|							o	
													N	
												_ o		
												N		
				-    *										
	aid													
		™)												
		O__		—		V.				—			-5!	
o			V9	— ^						—		-5!		
	\ B		<>•											
		>^		—										
			oo							—				
		«p___				V  ^0						— Q		
	•S-  §			—									— OO	
		!o—	8 —	o						—	5			
		>s												
	ft			—  ^!		.k N						— oo		
		v»___	>o~	— ^										
	_________									—	oo		— va	
	|	<0 w —	5-	____      v$										
		PI		<A								— s8		
		vj V4	o _	N										
		N__	sfl		----					—	st			
	-------------		^_	— <\)									— ^	
		>s	sS	—    M	—									
				N						—	SO			
	V			~~    N				s				— *		
				O				I						
														
		o 00	O _	—   »;									— <*i	
				___   «o	1							— ^		
				___    N	—			¦5						
														
			^ —					«.§						
														
	^^		o											
	^^		5;---					^  ^^						
	.3		Q											
		's		-----     5i»									__^y	
0														
				_     "*)		HI								
														
1	>)		|_	- 5!										
			ja											
				—   5:										
			so —											
														
		0	ll		1			1	0)	scose	enier			
												^^	^^	
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
37
•N producing these photomicrographs illustrated on the following plates, the
authors found that the best results are obtained by using the Wratten M
plates of the Eastman Kodak Company. In order to bring out the best details
the use of various filters is essential. The longitudinal fiber views were gen-
erally taken with the fibers imbedded in glycerine. The cross-sections with a
few exceptions were made with Hardy's fine cross-section device using Collodion
as an imbedding medium and Canada Balsam as a mounting medium.
The pictures revealing the surface structure of the animal fibers were all
produced by the impression technique. One of the best and simplest methods
for this technique is the one described by Hardy and Plitt. The imprints are
made on thermo-plastic film, such as "ethofoil," held with clamps under some
pressure and heated at a uniform moderate temperature in an oven. Positive
impressions are obtained with this method.
38
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
WOOL
PLATE I
Parts of a Wool Fiber (X 250)
A—Tip      B—Shaft      C—Root
Cross  Sections of Hair   (X  500)
E—Epidermis         C—Cortex         M—Medulla
Various Types of Epidermis Structure of Wool Fibers (X 500)
A                   B                        C
Cortical Layer and Loose Cells
(X 500)
A—Fragmental, B—Interrupted, C—Continuous
Types of Medullae (X 250)
Kemp (X 250)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
WOOL
II
3
PLATE II
;
M
<..    ¦:
P,i         V '

1
w/&
Kill wm$-
14        20        30
40               48                    60                   70                        80
Variation in Fineness or Width of Wool Fibers (X 250)
100
Microns
¦i........*-+&*  *' > j*-......¦

 v   :   V  L-4S
fine Wool  (X 230)
Medium Wool (X 230)
Coarse Wool (X 230s*

Mixed or Carpet Wool (X 230)          Natural Brown Wool (X 230)
Kempy Wool (X 230)
Grease Wool (X 120)
Tips of Lambs
Wool (X 250)
Tips of Shorn
Wool (X 250)
Pulled Wool
Roots (X 160)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
U. S. WOOL TOP STANDARDS
PLATE III
80
64
's
60
's
56
's
70
62
58
's
50
's
CROSS-SECTIONS (x 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
U. S. WOOL TOP STANDARDS
PLATE IV
48
's
44
's
46
'3
40
's
Note:— Cross-sections were
dyed with Orange II which
accounts for the light and
dark fibers.
36's
CROSS-SECTIONS  (x 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
WOOL FIBER DAMAGE
PLATE V
PHYSICAL DEFORMITIES
(x 500)                       (x 250)
SUNLIGHT DAMAGE
Virginia          AUSTRALIAN WOOL ENDS
Wool Ends          Water
Water (x 160)         (x 160)
 N/10 NaOH
 (x 160)
Over-scoured Fiber
showing holes in
epidermis
(x 500)
ALKALI	ACID	ACID	CHLORINE
Over-scoured	Typical	Krais-Viertel	Allworden
fiber—Folds	Brush-end	reaction on	reaction on
in epidermis	(x 500)	damaged fiber	normal fiber
(x 500)		(x 500)	(x 240)
CHLORINE      BLEACHING
Over-chlorinated     Over-bleached
fibers in            fibers showing
N/10 NaOH           removal of
(x 160)             scales (x 160)

V :;i
Fiber showing
beginning of
damage (x 500)
BACTERIA
Later stage
of damage
(x 230)
DAMAGE
Final destruction
of fibers
(x 120)
INSECT DAMAGE
Moth or carpet beetle
damage on fibers
(x 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
WOOL FIBER DAMAGE
PLATE VI
KODACHROME CROSS-SECTION OF A YARN FROM A GREEN SKI SUIT
(x 650)
Fiber content: Wool.................   84.6%")
Viscose Rayon  ........     8.0% L approximately 90% reused wool
Cotton...............     7.2% I
Jute   ..................      0.2%J    Courtesy G. Morn, Forstmann Woolen Co. Lab.
FIBERS TAKEN FROM REPROCESSED AND REUSED WOOLS
Mechanical damage caused             Worn fiber                     Breaks of fibers caused by
during processing                         tip                                            wear
(x 500)                               (x 230)                                       (x 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
SPECIALTY HAIR FIBERS
PLATE VII
:   •• . •
. 7     \*   '• ¦-•*» .

B
D
MOHAIR:        Top: Longit. view (X 240)
Bottom: Cross-section (X 500)
Epidermis: A—Woolhair. B—Beardhair.
C—Longit. view. D—Same with air-filled vacoules (X 500)


.   -. --"
i*v                                \, ?•¦=; .-- ;•¦ -,• .<.' a-
B
C                                          D
CASHMERE:        Top:  Longit. view  (X 240)           Epidermis: A—Woolhair.   B—Beardhair (X 500)
Bottom: Cross-section (X 500)                     Root, Shaft, Tip: C—Beardhair. D—Woolhair (X 180)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
SPECIALTY HAIR FIBERS
PLATE VIII
CAMELHAIR:
Longit. view (X 240)
Cross-section (X 500)
Surface structure of fine and        Longit. view
medium wool hairs (X 500)           (X 500)
ALPACA:     White
Longit. view (X 240)
Fawn
Cross-section  (X 500)
Epidermis
(X 500)
White          Brown
Longit. view (X 500)
VICUNA:
Longit. view (X 240)
Cross-section  (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
Epidermis of wool
and beardhair (X 500)
Longit. view of
woolhairs (X 500)
MINOR HAIR FIBERS
PLATE IX
HOG       Top:    Black   Bristles,   middle] Cross-
Center: White Bristles, near tip} Sections
Bottom: White Bristles, middlej (X 115)
m
--TitrTnnmii
Top: Flagged Tip     (X 50)
Bottom : Epidermis (X 500)
HORSE Top: Black Hair         } Cross-
Center:  White  Hair   (Sections (X 115)
Bottom: Pony Hair (X 500)
Top: Epidermis Pony         (X 500)
Bottom: Epidermis Horse (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
MINOR HAIR FIBERS
PLATE X
HUMAN
Shaft             Root
(X 160)
CROSS-SECTIONS
Adult                  Infant
(X  500)
EPIDERMIS
(X 500)
GOAT
Wool Hair            Beard Hair
(X 160)
CROSS-SECTIONS
Wool and Beard Hairs
(X  500)
EPIDERMIS
(X 500)
^ # !:
cow
Longitud. View
(X 115)
CROSS-SECTIONS
Cow (X 250)                          Calf (X 500)
EPIDERMIS
(X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
FUR FIBERS
PLATE XI
RABBIT HAIR         Top: Longit. view (X 125)
Bottom:  Cross-sect,  (left)  Furhairs
(right)  Guardhairs  (X 500)

••¦'••¦•¦a».-^-:-- -        -     • .¦¦    ¦«¦.;• ¦ •

MUSKRAT: Guard- and Furhairs
Top: Longit. view (X 125)
Bottom: Cross-sect. (X 500)
.
B
D
A—Epidermis of Guardhair; B, C—Furhairs, longit.
view; D, E—Epidermis of Furhairs; F—Guardhair,
longit. view (all X 500)
E
A—Epidermis of Furhair; B—Epidermis of Guard-
hair; C, D—Furhairs, longit. view; E—Guardhair,
longit. view (all X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
FUR FIBERS
PLATE XII
BEAVER             Top: A—Furhairs near middle,
B—Furhairs near tip
Bottom: Cross-sects, (all X 500)
B
MM

f- \ " /
•f        V*2
•
RACCOON     Top: A—Medulla with air removed,
B—Hair near base, C—Hair near tip
Bottom:    Cross-sects,    (all    X    500)
Q                         p                     ,                                                     Top: A—Furhairs, B—Guardhair
(air removed) ; Bottom: Cross-sects, (left) Guard-        Bottom: Cross-sections of (left) Silver Fox, (right)
SQUIRREL        Top: A—Furhairs, B—Guardhair        FOX
 C                (lf) Gd         B
hairs, (right) Furhairs (all X 500)
Red Fox (all X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
SILK
PLATE XIII
Top: RAW SILK               Oblique Light (X 115)
Bottom:           Cross-sections  (X 500)
Raw Silk                      Degummed Silk
Top:      DEGUMMED SILK                       (X 115)
Bottom:         Variations in Cross-sections  (X  165)
Diameter ratio, 0.610                 Diameter ratio 0.398
•
I
I


RAW SILK
showing Gum
(Sericin) (X 500)
DEGUMMED  SILK FIBERS
of three different Diameters   (X 500)
LOUSY SILK
(X 250)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
WILD SILKS
PLATE XIV
TUSSAH SILK
Raw Fibers   (X   115)
Degummed Fibers  (X 115)

Tussah Fiber
showing
Striations (X 500)
Two Fibers in Polarized Light
showing  Surface   Conditions
(X 500)
Cross-section
(X 500)
KURIWATA SILK
Longitudinal View (X 115)
2 Filaments (X 115)
Oblique Illumination
Cross-section
(X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
COTTON
PLATE XV
Schematic Drawing of     Fiber in polarized  Depectinized Fiber swollen and     Fibers swollen in cuprammonium
Cross-section.           light      showing      dissected  showing fibrills.         hydroxide  showing  balloons  and
P-Primary wall and cuticle.  spirai    structure.                   (X 500)                                            cuticle  (collars).
S = Secondary cellulose.                         /v  rnr.\                                                                              /v  nm
L = Lumen                                                                   ^              °)                                                         (Courtesy  Hock  and  Harris)               (A   120)

:

.
- i
is
¦:.;
Fibertip
(X 500)
Stem
(X 500)
Base
(X 500)
Mature Fibers of different diameters
(American Upland)    (X 300)
(Courtesy   U.  S.  Department of Agriculture)
 ¦
¦.-:•,¦¦

AT-

j
IVs;
Sakellarides
American Upland
Cross-sections (X 500)
Asiatic
(Courtesy  U. S. Department of Agriculture)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
COTTON AND MINOR SEED HAIRS
PLATE XVI
\
:i
,
'
;•¦•
;
MATURITY TEST
Untreated
Swollen
Coarse  Fibers
Untreated
Swollen
(Courtesy   U.  S.  Department of Agriculture)
i   ui
1
 r
y

r
i 1
. 1   1
vl>3Ssni
\
7
;
!
:   :
MERCERIZED COTTON:
Longit. view    (X 115)
Cross-section    (X 500)
Well mercerized Fibers
(X 500)
KAPOK:        Longit. view     (X 115)
Cross-section    (X 230)
PULU:          Longit. view     (X 115)
Cross-section    (X 230)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
BAST FIBERS
PLATE XVII
A
D
FLAX
Top: Raw Flax fibers stained (X 115)
Bottom: Cross-section             (X 500)
A—Two  stained  fibers  showing lumen and nodes
(X 500) ; B—Typical fiber end (X 500) ; C—Fiber
in   cuprammonium   hydroxide    (X 230);   D—Two
fibers in polarized light (X 500).


 ' ^

f   m
¦

B
HEMP
Top: Raw fibers stained (X 115)
Bottom: Cross-section       (X 500)
A—Two hemp fibers, top unstained, bottom stained
(X 500) ; B—Fiber tips showing rounded and forked
ends (X 500); C—Fiber in cup. hydroxide (X 230).
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
BAST FIBERS
PLATE XVIII
RAMIE
Top: Longit. view of stained fibers (X  115)
Bottom:  Cross-section                      (X 500)

...v-.

B
A—Ramie fiber showing diagonal cracks (X 500) ;
B—Fiber with typical thickenings and fissures
(X 500); C—Fiber under polarized light   (X  500).
B
JUTE
Top: Longit. view of fiber bundle (X 230)
Bottom: Cross-section                    (X 500)
A—Ju e fiber showing contraction of lumen (X
500) ; B—Cell end (X 500) ; C—Treated jute (Lana-
tin), Longit. view (X 230), Cross-section (X 500).
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
STRUCTURAL FIBERS
PLATE XIX
--..;/
___



'¦•¦V-;.    ,:>:;rf:-  '-,-:-'"-ii,..'-   :'   ¦¦**
SISAL   (Agave sisalana)
Longit. view showing fibers
and spiral tissue (X 115)
Cross-section  of
fiber bundles  (X 230)
Fiber end
(X 500)
Black crystals of
calcium oxalate
in ash (X 115)
|f

MANILA (Musa textilis)
Longit.  view
(X 115)
Cross-section of
fiber bundles (X 230)
Fiber end
(X 500)
-f'^
...
\jfn
Plate like stegmata
found in ash (X 230)
NEW ZEALAND FLAX (Phormium tenax)
Longit. view                           Cross-section of
(X 115)                          fiber bundles (X 230)
Fiber end
(X 500)
Fragments of
parenchyma frequently
found (X 115)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
STRUCTURAL FIBERS
PLATE XX
PIASSAVA (Attalea funifera)
Top: Star shaped silicous enclosures after treating
fibers in chromic acid (X 500)
Bottom: Cross-section of one fiber bundle (X 230)
COIR (Cocos nucifera)
Top: Single cell showing spiral structure (X 115)
Middle: Silicous remains in ash (X 500)
Bottom: Cross-section of fiber bundle with hollow
center (X 230)
RAPHIA (Raphia ruffia)
Top:  Raphia bast under low power microscope
(X 7.5)
Bottom:  Cross-section  of  several layers  of bast
(X 230)
SPANISH MOSS (Tillandsia usneoides)
Top: Scale from outer surface of fibers (Polarized
light)  (X 85)
Bottom: Cross-section of fiber bundles  (X 230)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
CONTINUOUS FILAMENT RAYON
PLATE XXI
VISCOSE RAYON
Bright   filaments
(X 115)
Dull filaments
(X   115)
Cross-sections
Bright  (X  1000)
Bright                  Dull
Filaments showing striations
(X 500)
"   ,      -
,;   \      *•
¦ .   •
ACETATE RAYON
Bright   filaments
(X 115)
Dull filaments
(X 115)
Bright                  Dull
Cross-sections   Filaments showing striations
Dull (X 1000)
(X 500)
1 i 1		1			* < • -¦ •
I
T
J
i
i¦•'
u
m
CUPRAMMONIUM RAYON
Bright filaments              Cross-sections dull
(X 500)                            (X 1000)
NITROCELLULOSE RAYON
Dull filaments           Cross-sections  Bright
(X 500)                         (X  1000")
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
RAYON STAPLE FIBERS
PLATE XXII
CROSS-SECTIONS OF VARIOUS STAPLE FIBERS (X 500)
Upper Row: Fibro, 1.5 den. Bri.—Celanese, 2 den. Bri.—Fibro, 3 den. Dull—Teca, 3 den. Dull.
Middle Row: Sylph, 4.5 den. Bri.—Celanese, 5 den. Bri.—Acele, 5.5 den. Dull—Teca, 8 den. Bri.
Bottom Row: Fibro, 10 den. Bri.—Celanese, 12 den. Bri.—Teca, 20 den. Bri.
;
Teca—3 den. Dull
Acetate
Fibro—5 den.
Dull Viscose
Sylph—4.5 den.
Bri. Viscose
Du Pont 5.5 den.
Dull Viscose
Celanese—5 den.
Bri. Acetate
LONGITUDINAL VIEWS  (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
PROTEIN FIBERS OR PROLONS
PLATE XXIII

•
		¦		
			:.   •--¦   -  ;	
				
'0.	(r ^ ^	•¦..••'. ¦••		
	!;	'"-   UK '	J    f	
	¦  /			
¦	.v		. ;r::^ ... ¦	
		', i *         •		
m				
		1 A-   ^		./ j .
si.				
LANITAL
Top:  Longit. View                          (X 500)
Bottom: Cross-section of dyed fibers (X 500)
SOYA BEAN FIBERS
Top: Longit. view          (X 500)
Bottom:   Cross-section   (X 500)
ARALAC (U. S. Casein Fiber) : Bright
Top:   Longit.   view   (X   500)   Note  inner   air-filled
channel
Bottom: Cross-section (X 500)
Dull
Top: Longit. view (X 500)
Bottom: Cross-section (X 500) One fiber with inner
channel

%   mm
.J ••
 ' K
 i (
 K yi ((

REGENERATED   SILK:   Longit.   view   (X   500)                              Cross-section (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
SYNTHONS
PLATE XXIV

5       '       £!"V\       '-"^
NYLON                Bright (dyed)
Top: Longit. view         (X 500)
Bottom:   Cross-section   (X 500)
Dull
Top:  Longit.  view         (X 500)
Bottom:   Cross-section   (X 500)
•
:;--\'\

M,


VINYON              Dull
Longit. view (X 500)
Cross-section (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
Bright
Longit. views (X 500)
Oblique Illumination
MINERAL FIBERS
PLATE XXV
ASBESTOS
Actual size
ASBESTOS
(X 8)
Actual Size
	
	
	
	
	
mffK	
;;%-.;ys-«
~i7^-   '
-V
,
(X 500)
GLASS
Longitudinal view  (X 500)                                               Cross-section (X 500)
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Author
American Association
of Textile Chemists
& Colorists
American Society for
Testing Materials
Bachrach, Max
Barker, S. G.
Chamot-Mason
Eastman Kodak Co.
Graff, John H.
Hanausek, T. F. &
Winton, A. L. & K. B.
Herzog, A. &
Hermann, P.
Herzog, A. &
Koch, P. A.
Kronacher,  C.
Lodemann, G.
Lawrie, L. G.
Lochte, T.
Mark, H.
Mathews, J. M.
McMurtrie, W.
Schwarz, E. R.
Mauersberger, H. &
Schwartz, E.
Skinkle, J. H.
Von Bergen, W. &
Mauersberger, H.
Von Hoehnel
Title
Year Book Annual
Standards on Textile Materials
Fur, a Practical Treatise
Wool Quality—A Study of the Influence of Various
Contributory Factors
Handbook  of  Chemical   Microscopy,  Vol.   I.    Second
Edition
Photomicrography
A Color Atlas for Fiber Identification
The Microscopy of Technical Products
Mikroskopische u-mechanisch techn.
Textiluntersuchung
Fehler in Textilien
Technik der Haar-und-Wolle untersuchung
Textile Microscopy
Atlas der menschlichen  und tier. Haare
Beitraege zur Kenntnis der Wolle und ihrer
Bearbeitung.   Heft 1.
The Textile Fibers
Examination of Wools and Other Animal Fibers
Textiles and the Microscope
Rayon and Staple Fiber Handbook.   3d Edition
Elementary Textile Microscopy
American Wool Handbook
Mikroskopie  der  techn.  verwendeten  Faserstoffe
Publisher
1941—Howes Publishing
Company, New York
American   Society   for
Testing   Materials
Phila., Oct., 1941
Prentice-Hall, Inc.
New York, 1936
London. H. M. Stationery
Office, Dec. 1931
John Wiley & Sons, Inc.,
1938
The Institute of Paper
Chemistry, 1940
John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
1907
Springer.   Berlin, 1931
Verlag  Melliand.   Textil-
ber.   Heidelberg, 1938
Urban & Schwarzenberg
Berlin, 1930
Ernest Benn, Ltd.
Dr. P. Schops.  1938
Kaiser   Wilhelm   Institti
fuer Faserstoffchemie,
Berlin, 1925
John Wiley & Sons, Inc..
1924—4th Edition
U. S.  Government Print-
ing Office, 1885
McGraw Hill Book Co
New York,  1934"     :
Rayon Handbook Co.
New York, 1939
Howes   Publishing   Com-
pany, New York, 1930
American Wool Hand-
book Co., New York, 1938
Hartleben. Wien, 1887
Author
Chace, W. G.
Eckert, P.
LITERATURE ARTICLES AND PAMPHLETS
General Microscopic Analysis
Title                                                              Publication
Mildew Cloth—Microscopy                                                Amer. Dye. Reporter
1936.   Vol. 25 p. 716
Method of Determining Swelling in Width of Fibre     Klepzig's Textilztschr
1937.  Vol. 40 s. 638-639
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
Fletcher, H. &
Denhardt, L.
Fletcher, H. M.
Fox, K. R.
Hardy, J. I.
Herzog, A.
Mennerich,  F.
Osborne,  G. G.
Flitt, T. M.
Reumuth, H.
Schwarz, E. R.
do
Skinkle, J.  H.
do
Von Bergen, W.
Adequacy of Labeling of Certain Textile Fabrics with
Regard to Fiber Content
Quantitative Microscopical Analysis of Mixed Fabrics
Refractive Indices of Textile Fibres: Double Variation
Method for the Determination of
A   Practical   Laboratory   Method   for   Making   Thin
Cross-Section of Fibers
Ein Handmikrotom fuer Faserstofre
Rapid   Microscopical   Measurement   of   Diameters   in
Cross Sections
Micro-analysis of Textile Fibers.   Part I
Microscopic Methods Used in Identifying Commercial
Fibers
Fasern-Oberflaechenstudien
Improved Rapid Sectioning of Fibers
Textile Fibers: Structure and Methods of Investigation
Analysis of Fiber Blends
Identification of the Newer Textile Fibers
Neue Schnellverfahren  zur Herstellung von  duennen
Faserquerschnitten
J.  of  Agricultural   Res.
Vol. 58, No. 12
Amer. Dyestuff Reporter
Oct. 16, 1939, p. 624
Textile Res. Vol. X
Dec. 1939, No. 2, p. 79
U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 378
Nov. 1935
Melliand  Textilber.    1939
(Band XX) Lief. 8.
Seite 545-616
Rayon Textile Monthly
Vol. 17, Feb. 1936
Text. Res. 1933
Vol. 4, p. 84-111
Circ. C 423—U. S. Dept.
of Commerce. Nat. Bureau
of Standards
Klepzig's   Textilztschr.
Vol. 43, 1936
Textile Res. Vol. VI
April 1936, p. 270
Textile Res. Vol. VII
p. 271-278, 310-326
Amer. Dyestuff Reptr.
Sept. 18, 1939
Amer. Dyestuff Reptr.
Nov. 27. 1939, p. 694
Melliands Textilber.
January 1937
Bosnian, V.
Burns,   Robert  H.
Johnston,  A.   &
Chen, W. C.
Cunliffe, P. W.
Doehner, H.
Franz, E.
Grandstaff, J. O.
do
Hardy, J. I.
Jo
Animal Fibers—Wool
Biological Study of S. African Merino Wool Production
Chinese Carpet Wools and Their Improvement
Wool Fiber: Stretching, Twisting and Swelling
Phenomena
An Easy Method of Determining the Fineness of Wool
The Measurements of Fineness of Wool
A Rapid Method for Projecting and Measuring Cross
Sections of Wool Fibers
Wool Characteristics in Relation to Navajo Weaving
Two   Rapid   Methods   for   Estimating   Fineness   and
Cross-Sectional Variability of Wool
Determination   of   Fiber   Fineness   and   Cross-Section
Variability
The J. Text. Inst. Vol. 28
Aug. 1937, p. 270
The J. Text. Inst. Vol. 31
April 1940, T 37
The J. Text. Inst. Vol. 24
1933  T 417-420
The Melliand, Vol. I
April 1929, p. 7
The J. Text. Inst. Vol. 28
Oct. 1937, p. 368
U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 590
Dec. 1940, Washington,
D. C.
U.S.D.A. Technical
Bulletin No. 790, Jan. 1942
U.S.D.A. Circ. No. 543
Dec. 1939, Washington,
D. C.
Textile Res. Vol. 3
Dec. 1933. p. 381: Vol. 5
Feb. 1935, p. 184
II
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
Hardy, J. I.
do
Schott, K. G.
Phillips, R. W. and
Wolf, H. W.
Hock, Ramsay, &
Harris
Krauss, W.
Kruegel, E. O.
do
Lauth, E.
Malan, A. P.
McMahon, P. R.
Millson, H. E.
Royer, G. L. &
Wissemann, M. E.
Osborne, G. G.
Rogers, Ruth Elmquist
Hays, Margaret B.
Hardy, J. I.
Pohle, E. M.
Rausch, H.
Reumuth, H.
Reumuth, H. and
Schwerdiner, H.
Stowes, J. L.
Von Bergen, W.
do
do
do
do
do
A Method for Studying the Scale Structure of Medul-
lated and Pigmented Animal Fibers
Dec. 1934
fugitive Bulletin
Comparison   of   the  Accuracy   of   Two   Methods   of     J. of Agricultural Res.
Estimating Fineness of Wool Fibers                                  Vol. 60, No. 5
Microscopic Structure of the Wool Fiber
A Scientific Aspect of Carpet Wools
Wool—Top Standards
Brief on Wool Top Standards
Neue Mittel zur Feinheit-Laengen-und
Kraftbewertung von Kammwollen
Frequency Distribution of Merino Wool Fiber
Thickness Measurements
Methods for the Estimation of Medullation in Wool
Samples
Microscopic Observations of Wool Dyeing
Observations on the  Structure of Kemp
A Service Study of Three Blanket Fabrics Made from
Various Blends of Wool and Mohair
The Application of a Rapid Comparator Method for
Determining Fineness and Variability in Wool
Measuring;   Wool   Fineness:   Unification   of   Methods
Beitraege zur Ffistologie und Pathologie der Wollfaser
Microscopic Study of Scale Structure of Animal Fibers
An  Examination of the Relation  Between Wool
Quality and Fiber Diameter
Measurement of Fiber Width by the Wedge Method
An Interesting Case of an Abnormal Diseased Wool
Fleece
Root Ends and Skin Pieces in Woolen Materials
Buying and Sorting Raw Wool By Means of Scientifi-
cally Selected Samples
Method of Determining the Effect of Light Upon Wool
Testing the Physical and Chemical Properties of Wool
By Means of the Microscope
Washington, D. C.
J. of Research of the
Nat. Bureau of Standards
Vol. 27, Aug. 1941
Rayon Textile Monthly
Oct. and Nov. 1937
Textile Research
Vol. 6, p. 465, 1936
Textile Research
Vol. 7, p. 197, 1937
Diss. Munich 1930
Ondestepoort J.  1937
Vol. 9, p. 259-282
J. of the Textile Inst.
Vol. XXVIII, 1937
American   Dyestuff
Reporter, Oct. 30, 1939
Textile Res. 1936
Vol. 6, No. 3, p. 157
American  Dyestuff
Reporter, Vol. 31. p. 318,
1942
The American Society of
Animal   Production,   1940
Proceed. 12th Int. Wool
Conference, 1937, Rp. 22-
26
Klepzigs   Textil-Ztschr.
Heft 36, 1939
Z. ges. Textil-Ind. 1936
Vol. 39, 12-18
The J. of Text. Inst.
Dec.'1941, P T221-226
Mell. Textile Monthly
Vol. IV, Nos. 3, 4, 7, 8
(June.   July.   Oct.,   Nov.
1932)
The Melliand, Oct.  1930
p. 537
The Melliand. Vol. II,
Oct. 1930. p. 909
Nov. 1930, p. 1072
American Soc. for Test.
Mat. 1936
The Melliand. Vol. II
No. 1, April 1930, p. 9
Amer. Soc. for Test. Mat.'
Vol. 35, Part II, 1935
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
141
United States
Department     ?
of Agriculture
Winson, A.
Amendment of Official Standards of the United States  ' Dec. 1939
for Grades of Wool Top
Amendment ,of Regulations of the Secretary of Agri-
culture Relating to the Official Standards of the United
States for Grades of Wool Top
Methods of Test for Grade of Wool Top
A Comparison of the Fineness of British and Continen-     The  J.  of Text.   Inst. 22
tal Standards for Combed Tops                                      .   Dec. 1931, p. 539
Plail,   J.
Skinkle, John H.
Von Bergen, W.
do
do
Whitford, A. C.
Hardy, J. I.
Specialty Hair Fibers
Microscopic Appearance  of  Goats  Hair,  Mohair  and
Cashmere Wool
The Determination of Wool and Mohair by Scale Size
and Diameter
Cashmere
Vicuna
Wool and Mohair
Guanaco Fibers
Studies of the Occurrence and Elimination of Kemp-
Fibers in Mohair Fleeces
Textilber. 1937, Vol. 8
p. 197-200
American Dyestuff
Reporter, Vol. 25, p. 620,
193$
The Melliand, Vol. I No. 6
Sept. 1929, p. 855
The Melliand, Vol. II
June 1930, p. 353
Amer. Assn. of Text.
Chem. & Col., May 17,
1937
Textile Research
Nov. 1939
U.S.D.A.  Techn.  Bulletin
No. 35, Oct., 1927
Haussmann, L. A.
Hotte, G. H.
Sharp
Von Bergen, W.
Fiebiger
Hall, R. O.
Hardy, J. I. &
Plitt, T. M.
Minor Hair Fibers
The Relationship of the Microscopic Structural Char-
acter of Human Head Hair
Micro-analysis of Human Head Hair
fancy Blend Wool Yarns
Musk-Ox Wool and Its Possibilities as a New Textile
Fiber
Fur Fibers
Haare
Fiber Structure in Relation to Fur Dyeing
An Improved Method for Revealing the Surface
Structure of Fur Fibers
Amer. Jour, of Phys.
Vol. 8, 1925
M.I.T. 1935
Text. Manufacturer
Mar. 1937, p. 87
Mell.  Text.  Monthly
Vol. Ill, Nos. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10
(Sept.,   Oct.,   Nov..   Dec.
1939 & Jan. 1932)
Stang-Wirtz Tier
Heilkunde u. Tierzucht
J. Soc. Dyers & Colourists
1937, Vol. 53, 341-344
Wildlife Circular 7, U. S.
Dept. of the Interior
Clayton
Mennerich, F.
Hougen
O'Hara, K.
Silk
The   Work   of   a   Research   Department   in   the   Silk
Industry
Diameter Ratio of Silk Filaments as Related to Two-
Tone  Dyeing
Silk Fibroin: Swelling
The Jour, of the Text.
Inst. Mar. 1939, p. 62
Textile Res. Vol. V, No 5
March 1935
Sci. Papers Inst. Phys.
Chem. Res. Tokyo. 1933
Vol. 22, pp. 216-232
IV
TEXTILE   FIBER  ATLAS
Wagner, W.
do
do
Silk: Irregularity
Entstehung der Seidenfloeckchen (Seidenlaus)
Ueber die Seidenfloeckchen
Monatschr. Seide u. Kunst-
seide 1935, Vol. 40, p.
291-301, 340-346, 386-390,
426-461,  462-472,   507-516
Melliand, 1925, p. 43, 118,
771
Melliand Textilberichte
1926, p. 929, 1016
Bailey, A. J. &
Brown, R. M.
Balls, W. L.
Berkley, E. E.
Conrad, C. M.
Farr, W. K.
Grimes, M. A.
Hock, Ramsay
& Harris
Hock & Harris
Karrer & Bailey
Morey, D. R.
Schwarz &
Shapiro
Sullivan, R. R. and
Hertel, K. L.
Cotton and Minor Seed Hairs
Diameter Variation in Cellulose Fibrils
Study of Quality in Cotton
Cellulose Orientation, Strength and  Cell Wall
Development of Cotton  Fibers
Cotton Quality Determination By Application of
Certain Chemical Methods
Cellulosic Fiber Structure
A Comparison of Five Methods of Measuring Fineness
of Cotton Fibers
Microscopic Structure of the Cotton Fiber
Microscopic  Examination  of  Cotton  Fibers  in
Cuprammonium Hydroxide Solutions
Geometric Fineness of Cotton Fibers and Associated
Cross-Sectional Features: Their Comparison by Means
of Graduated Scales
Cellulose Fibers : micellar Arrangement
Cotton   Fiber   Maturity.    Polarized   Light  and   Cross
Section Studies
Surface per Gram of Cotton Fibers As a Measure of
Fiber Fineness
Vorstman, N. J. M.         Akon and Kapok Fiber: Identification
Ind. & Eng. Chemistry
Jan. 1940, p. 57
McMillan, London,  1928
pp. 16-25
Textile Research, Vol. IX.
No. 10, Aug. 1939
Textile Res., Vol. VII, No.
4, Feb. 1937
Textile Res. 1936, Vol. 7,
p. 65-69
Text.   Research,   Vol.   XI
No. 11, Sept. 1941
Amer. Dyestuff Reptr.
Feb. 3, 1941, p. 53
Textile Research, Vol. X
No. 8, June 1940
Textile Res. Vol. VIII
No. 11, 1938
Textile Res. 1933, Vol. 3
p. 325, 345. 1934, Vol. 4
p. 491-512
Rayon Textile Monthly
June, July, Aug., Sept.
1938
Textile Research, Vol. XI
No. 1, Nov. 1940
Chem. Weekblad. 1936
Vol. 33, p. 746-747
Dantzer, J. &
Roehrich, O.
Osborne, G. G.
do
Schneider, K.
Slattery, E.
Hock, Chas. W.
Bast Fibers—Structural Fibers
Sisal and Manila Fiber: Properties
Ramie Fiber: Structure
Observations on the Structure of Flax, Manila and Jute
Flax Structure and Cottonisation of Flax
Some   Observations   on  the  Size  and  Shape  of  Flax
Fiber Ultimates
Microscopic Structure of Flax and Related Bast Fibers
Fils et Tissues,  1937
Vol. 25, p. 147-153, 205-07
Textile Research, 1934
Vol. 5. 75-91
Textile Research, Vol. V
No. 10, Aug. 1935
Faserforschung,   1937
Vol. 12, S. 169-178
J.   of  the  Text.   Institute
April 1936, Vol. 27 pT 101
Am. Dyestuff Reporter,
Vol. 31, No.14, July 6.
1942, pg. 334
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
V
Rayon and Synthetic Fibers
Atwood, F. C.
Bonnet, F.
Cerbaro, E.
Hardacre, W.
Herzog, A. &
Rueckert, H.
Koch, P. A.
do
Laesse, R.
Mauersberger, H. R.
Mennerich, F. A.
do
do
Swallen, L. F.
Von Bergen, W.
do
do
Williams,. S. and
Tonn, W. H.
Aralac
Vinyon—A New Textile Fiber
Three New Methods for the Determination of Lanital
with Wool
The  New  Synthetic  Fibers
The Development of "Fibro" and "Fibro"-Wool Yarns
Viscose and Cuprammonium  Rayons: Distinguishing
Test
Neue Zellwollen (geschaffene Fasern) und ihre
Querschnittsbilder  (IV)
Two New Methods for Distinguishing (between differ-
ent types of) staple rayon fibers
Delustered Rayon : Microscopic Examination
The New Synthetic Textile Fibers
Rayon Filaments-Microscopy
Correlation of Diameter and Denier for Rayon Staple
Fibers
Microscopical Analyses of Mixed Textile Fibers
Zein
Casein Wool
Determining Average Denier of Staple Fibers in Mixed
and Self Fabrics
Nylon and Its Identification
Qualitative   Methods   of   Identifying   Soybean  Fibers
in Mixtures of Casein, Wool or Other Textile Fiber
Amer. Dyestuff Reptr.
Mar. 30, 1942, p. 155
American Dyestuff Reptr.
Mar. 4, 1940, p. 116
Chemical  Abstracts
p. 5285, Aug. 10, 1940
Textile World
Sept. 1939
The J. Text. Inst  Vol 28
Oct. 1937, p. 364
Melliand Textilber.
1937. Vol. 18, p. 485-6
Klepzigs Textilzt. 1939
Heft 1, Seite 11 ff.
Melliand Textilber 20.
177-81  (1939). Excerpt
Chem. Ab. Sept.  10, 1939
p. 7119
Melliand Textilber.  1933
Vol.   14,  p.   185-187,  309,
311, 358-359, 414-416, 461-
463, 508-510, 553-554
Rayon Text. Monthly
Nov., Dec. 1940
Amer. Dye. Reporter, 1936
Vol. 25, p. 726-728
Rayon Text. Monthly
June 1938
Rayon Text. Monthly
March  1939
Corn Prod. Ref. Co.
Rayon  &  Mell. Text
Mthly, Jan. 1936, p. 75
Rayon  Text.  Monthly
Feb. 1938, p. 56
Rayon Text. Monthly
Jan. 1939, p. 53
Rayon  Text.  Monthly
Sept. 1941, p. 63
Owens-Corning
Fiberglass Corp.
Slayter, G.
Mineral   Fibers
It's Fiberglas
Fiber Glass
Booklet-O wens-Corning
Co.  1940
Talk given before the
American Assn. of Textile
Techn., N. Y. Jan. 8, 1941
Vi
TEXTILE   FIBER   ATLAS
S|M   HP<?n'fN INST™™N LIBRARIES
*  9088  00715  8835


JHBHhH
a
u m
¦HHWW