SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Biesterfeldt: A Post-Contact Coalescent Site on the Northeastern Plains W. Raymond ^ood SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS City of Washington 1971 SERIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The emphasis upon pubHcations as a means of diffusing knowledge was expressed by the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In his formal plan for the Insti- tution, Joseph Henry articulated a program that included the following statement: "It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge not strictiy professional." This keynote of basic research has been adhered to over the years in the issuance of thousands of tides in serial publications under the Smithsonian imprint, commencing with Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge in 1848 and continuing with the following active series: Smithsonian Annals of Flight Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics Smithsonian Contributions to Botany Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology Smithsonian Contributions to ^oology Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology In these series, the Institution publishes original articles and monographs dealing with the research and collections of its several museums and offices and of professional colleagues at other institutions of learning. These papers report newly acquired facts, synoptic interpretations of data, or original theory in specialized fields. Each publica- tion is distributed by mailing lists to libraries, laboratories, institutes, and interested specialists throughout the world. S. DILLON RIPLEY Secretary Smithsonian Institution Official publication date is handslamped in a limited number of initial copies and is recorded in the Institution's annual report, Smithsonian Year. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CARD 76-608033 UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON: 1971 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing OflSce Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $1.50 ABSTRACT Wood, W. Raymond. Biesterfeldt: A Post-Contact Coalescent Site on the Northeastern Plains. Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology, number 15, 109 pages, 1971. Biesterfeldt is a forti- fied village of about sixty earth lodges on the Sheyenne River in eastern North Dakota. A large central earth lodge faces a central plaza, with dwellings randomly set elsewhere in the village. The site setting, village plan, and structures are like those of historic Mandan and Arikara villages. Pottery attributes are well within the range of sedentary Missouri River groups, and only a few elements distinguish Biesterfeldt pottery from that of the Arikara. The site is dated about 1750 to 1790, when trade goods had displaced many native tools of bone and stone. In the thirty years since W. D. Strong dug the site, new data have accumulated which require revisions in the interpretation of the Biesterfeldt component: the artifact complex conforms to that of Post- Contact Coalescent sites of the Plains Village pattern in the Missouri River trench to the west. The identification of Biesterfeldt as Cheyenne is based on circumstantial evidence; its occu- pants are uncertain, but the Cheyenne provide the most economical hypothesis. The Cheyenne migration from the Minnesota area was by individual groups, not as a tribal body. Sedentary villages on the Minnesota River and on the Missouri were coeval with the village (or villages) on the Sheyenne River. The latter river valley was occupied after 1700, perhaps by 1724, and was abandoned about 1790. Present data suggest the Sheyenne-James region was a marginal one in the Northeastern Plains sub-area. It was not occupied by groups moving from the Missouri valley; rather, horti- cultural groups in the Northeastern Plains may have been subjected to cultural processes analogous to those which were responsible for the development of the Coalescent tradition in the Missouri valley. Thus, they participated in the development of the Plains Village pattern in an area well removed from the Missouri River, where the Coalescent tradition reached its fullest expression. The Missouri River was crossed by some Cheyenne in the 1600s, and the last of them aban- doned it about 1840, providing about two centuries for the tribe as a whole to abandon a settled horticultural way of life. A review of purported Cheyenne sites along the Missouri River re- veals that none of them are clearly identifiable as such. Only three of these village locations are not now flooded by the Oahe Reservoir: one of them is near the Heart River, and two are on the Grand River. The Cheyenne movement onto the High Plains was motivated by settling an area advantageous for trade purposes, rich in bison, and temporarily removed from military pressure by the Dakota. Preface During the summer of 1938, a joint Columbia University-State Historical Society of North Dakota expedition conducted excavations at the Biesterfeldt^ or Sheyenne- Cheyenne site, a protohistoric Indian earth lodge village in southeastern North Dakota. This work, carried out during a 20-day period from July 8 through July 28, was directed by William Duncan Strong, and was the last field work in the Plains which he personally and individually directed. The only account of the work was published in 1940 by Strong, who summarized the excavated features and cultural material from the site, and sources for its possible identi- fication as a village of the formerly semi-sedentary Cheyenne, in a review of archeological finds in the Northern Plains up to 1939 (Strong, 1940, pp. 370-376) . In a footnote on the title page of this paper. From History to Prehistory in the North- ern Great Plains, Strong acknowledged his indebtedness to the work of Joseph Jablow and other graduate students then in the Department of Anthropology, Columbia Univer- sity. Parts of Jablow's studies of the Cheyenne Indians, later published in his doctoral dis- sertation (Jablow, 1951), were incorporated into Strong's summary. Jablow had ac- companied Strong to the site as a member of the 1938 field party, which also included Robert A. Elder, Jr., Nathan Hauben, Edward A. Milligan, Arnold Mitchell, Martin Osborne, Sigmund Sameth, Carlyle S. Smith, and Clarence W. Weiant. George F. Will and Russell Reid of Bismarck, North Dakota, also assisted in the excavations during occa- sional visits to the site. The twenty days in 1938 devoted to the excavation of this site began with the establish- ment of a tent camp on the banks of the Sheyenne River, not far from the site. Strong was in direct charge of the excavation and most of the notes on the work, and a field diary, were composed in a spiral notebook under his hand. The following extracts from his diary will serve as background information on the progress of the field work. The diary was written in off moments, usually at the end of a hard day's work. These extracts, therefore, have been heavily edited, since they consisted largely of disconnected notes; no purpose would be served by presenting them in their original form. Friday, July 8 Up at 7:00. Breakfast in camp. Spent the morning finishing camp, rain trenches, etc. . . .Went to work at 1:00. Began palisade Trench 1, the cross section of House 23, and Cache 1 near House 23. . . . The pottery so far obtained is grit-tempered, and while it has a distinctive look, it is quite similar to Mandan-Hidatsa, etc., ceramics from the Missouri River. Rather surprising in light of traditions. Grooved mauls and very heavy mussel shells are quite abundant. Smith and Mitchell checked the Libby-Stout 1908 map of the site and found it quite accurate. Had a splendid swim in the evening—the beach is hard and the water about six feet deep. Clear. Nice evening in camp around the fire. Weather fine. River rising. Saturday, July 9 Had a swim just before a shower this evening. To Lisbon after dinner. 1 The site was on the farm of Mr. Louis Biesterfeld, but,through an error, a terminal "t" was added to a map and notes made in 1908, and this error has persisted through the years. The terminal "t" is retained here as is conventional except in reference to the former landowner, with apologies to the present owner (Ruth Johnson) and operator (Irwin Johnson) , Mr. Biesterfeld's heirs. Wednesday, July 13 Warm day, but a strong wind took the curse off. Work was interrupted by Mr. Biesterfeld . . . who feared the other heirs would object to our work, thinking it would ruin the site. We showed him the nature of our work, and arranged to get assurances of its scientific value from Reid, etc. Can go on with work already begun but not start new excavations. Went to town in the afternoon and called Will, arranging for a letter and for a later visit. Hope all goes well, as this is one of the prettiest excava- tions I have seen for a long time. Given two more weeks we can do a beautiful job. Thursday, July 14 Good day. Smith making a map of House 4 House 23 was smoothly opened on the upper floor level and then, since we couldn't find the postholes, we had to chop the floor down looking for them. By evening we had two center posts and other features. Friday, July 15 Hot day. Got permission to extend the excavations today after Will's letter arrived. Cleaned up and mapped House 23. . Opened several "caches," one or two of which were duds. Caught up with cataloging and numbering. Went to Milnor[a nearby town] tonight. Saw a fine display of Northern Lights. Sunday, July 17 Hot day, mostly spent in camp, with letters, notes and visitors. Played a ball game with local nine in the afternoon. Fred Diertt pitched for us. Led in the first half of the 9th, 15-14, but they swamped us in the last, 15-24. Good game. Tuesday, July 19 Will and Reid arrived just before noon, and showed them around the site. In the afternoon the whole crew was in House 16, since it is too complex to have two houses under excavation at the same time. Sunday, July 24 It was overcast last night but did not rain. Mitchell's car broke down last night on the way back from Fargo, and they had to sleep in the car. I met them being towed into Lisbon. Monday, July 25 Went over to see Mr. Biesterfeld this evening. We may get permission to look for burials when he comes over Wednesday morning. Washed and cataloged this evening. Tuesday, July 26 I talked to the Kiwanis Club at Fisher today. Wednesday, July 27 The outline of House 16 is that of a conventional earth lodge except that the distance between the wall posts is a little larger than usual. ... I went in today to talk to the Lisbon newspaper man. Biesterfeld was here before noon, but will not give permission to investigate the burial ground in his pasture. Too bad, but that's that. Thursday, July 28 Dr. Libby was here this afternoon, and seemed much interested in the site. A local collector took us up to see some mounds on the rim of the Coteau des Prairies, about two miles southwest of here. They are very impressive, with numerous large ones and many small ones hidden in the tall grass of the unbroken prairie. Went up again after supper, and saw a circular area or fort surrounded by a deep ditch. There is much work to be done here. Until 1955, Strong's 1940 paper on the Northern Plains was the only existing statement on the Biesterfeldt site, and was used as a basic source by everyone concerned with Cheyenne culture history. In 1954, during my association with the State Historical Society of North Dakota, I discovered the specimen material from the site in storage in the Society's Museum in Bismarck, North Dakota. Pottery types from various village sites in the Dakotas had begun to appear by this time, and a formal description of the Biester- feldt material seemed a necessary step in more fully assessing Northern Plains culture history. Reassembling the pottery and other tools from storage and display areas, I made a ceramic analysis which was published the following year (Wood, 1955) , with Strong's permission and that of Russell Reid, then Superintendent of the Society. Preliminary studies were also made of other artifacts, but lack of time and other duties interrupted this task. In spite of the accelerated excavation and publication program carried out in recent years by numerous federal and state agencies in the Dakotas, no new data on closely com- parable sites had come to light as late as 1966. Arrangements were thus made to reassemble the site material at the University of Missouri in Columbia for a final and detailed report. By this time, not only the data but the participants in this excavation were widely scattered, and Strong himself was gone. All of the artifacts from Biesterfeldt were sent to the Museum of the State Historical Society of North Dakota after they were studied by Jablow and Strong, and they were accessioned as part of their permanent collection on 16 September 1940. Since that time the collection had largely remained in dead storage, although parts of it were on display. James E. Sperry, then Research Archeologist at the Society, and Norman Paulson, Museum Curator, undertook the task of seeking out and reassembling the scattered artifacts in the museum. This involved a great deal of time and effort, and they were successful in locating all but a very small part of the material. Their cheerful coopera- tion in carrying out this disagreeable job is warmly and gratefully appreciated. Permis- sion to study this material was generously granted by Ray Mattison, then Superintendent of the Society. These collections were sent to me in Columbia, Missouri, for study. All of Strong s known field notes and maps from the site were obtained by the Smith- sonian Institution, United States National Museum, after Strong's death in 1962. I am deeply grateful to Dr. Waldo R. Wedel for his efforts in locating these data among Strong's effects in the National Museum, and for his assistance in making them available to me. Copies of these documents were obtained through the courtesy of Dr. Richard B. Wood- bury, then Chairman, Office of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution. At the time this study began, the field photographs from Biesterfeldt were on file in the Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York City. Dr. Ralph Solecki assisted in providing prints of these photographs and, later, in providing enlargements for use as illustrations herein. Dr. Carlyle S. Smith, a member of the 1938 expedition, made several of the field maps for Strong, and conferences with him relating to the field work materially clarified many of the problems involved in writing up the field notes of another archeologist. The assist- ance of many other people who contributed, in one way or another, is gratefully acknowl- edged. Among those I wish to thank for professional help are Drs. Richard A. Krause, Donald J. Lehmer, and Waldo R. Wedel. I am also indebted to Marc D. Rucker and Alan R. Woolworth for ethnohistorical assistance. The responsibility for typing and proofreading the manuscript was shouldered by Mrs. Betty Gay Graham, who cheerfully performed these tedious tasks through many revisions. Financial assistance from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc., is gratefully acknowledged. This assistance provided for manuscript preparation and underwrote field work in the summer of 1967. This study is based directly on Strong's original field notes and data. The present product, however, is undoubtedly not the kind of statement Strong might have prepared himself were he doing it today. No effort has been made to duplicate his style, for my personal contact with him was limited to two brief and casual meetings at Plains Confer- ences. New data have necessitated new interpretations, and the present synthesis differs in many details from that which he offered in 1940. I sincerely hope these changes would have been acceptable to him. WRW University of Missouri Columbia, Missouri I December 1969 Contents Page INTRODUCTION 1 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING 4 THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 7 Site Description 7 Fieldwork 9 Fortification System . 9 Palisade Trenches 1 and 5 10 Palisade Trench 2 10 Palisade Trench 3 10 Palisade Trench 4 11 Palisade Trench 6 11 Palisade Trench 7 11 Houses 11 House 2 12 House 4 12 House 7 12 House 11 12 House 12 14 House 16 : 14 House 21 14 House 23 18 House 29 18 House 36 18 Exterior Pits 18 Group 1 22 Group 2 22 Group 3 23 Refuse-Littered Depressions 24 Artifacts 24 Pottery 24 General Characteristics .... 25 Cord-wrapped Rod-impressed Rims 27 Bead-impressed Rims 30 Cord-impressed Rims 30 Tool-impressed Rims 31 Plain, Smoothed Rims 31 Plain, Brushed Rims 31 Pinched, Plain Rims 31 Example A 32 Example B 32 Chipped Stone 33 Arrowpoints 33 End Scrapers 33 Rectangular Chipped Stone Items 34 Bifaces 34 Modified Flakes 34 Ground Stone 34 Page Grooved Mauls 35 Pitted Hammers 35 Pebble Hammers ^ Shaft Smoother 35 Sandstone Abraders 35 Grooved (?) Abrader 35 Gaming (?) Stone 36 Elbow Catlinite Pipe 36 Catlinite Pipe 36 Catlinite Items 36 Pigments 36 River Pebbles 36 Glacially Striated Stones 36 Milling Stones 36 Manos 36 Pitted Field Stone 36 Worked Bone 36 Scapula Hoes 36 Squash Knife 37 Bison Humerus Abrader 37 Bone Scoop 37 Polisher 37 Shaft Wrenches 37 Slotted Knife Handles 37 Serrated Fleshers 38 Bone Bracelet 38 Fox Mandible Pendant 38 Bevel-tipped Tool 38 Bone Pendant 38 Shaped Bone Item 38 Spatulate 38 Bone Beads 39 Bone Whistle 39 Fish Bone Artifacts 39 Needle (?) 39 Miscellaneous Cut Bone Fragments 39 Worked Shell 39 Shell Scrapers 39 Trade Goods 39 Glass Seed Beads 39 Glass 40 Teacup Handle 40 Brass Trigger Guard Pendant 40 Brass Spring 40 Brass Rod 40 Brass Bangle 40 Shaped Brass Item 40 Brass and Copper Arrowpoints 40 Brass and Copper Scrap 40 Copper Beads 41 Iron or Steel Arrowpoints 41 Iron or Steel Lance Tip 41 Iron or Steel and Brass Knife Blades 41 Iron or Steel "Ring" 41 Iron or Steel Scrap 41 Lead Strip 41 Other Remains 42 Floral Remains 42 Page Faunal Remains 42 Human Remains 42 THE BIESTERFELDT COMPONENT 45 Community Pattern 45 Structures 46 Artifact Complex 46 Pottery 46 Chipped and Ground Stone 48 Bone and Shell Artifacts 48 Trade Goods 49 Dating 49 Taxonomy 49 CHEYENNE ETHNOHISTORY 51 Traditional Origins 52 Early Documentation 52 Residence in Minnesota 53 Residence on the Sheyenne River 53 The Biesterfeldt Site 54 Residence on the Missouri River 60 Lewis and Clark Documentation 63 Porcupine Creek Village 64 Slab Town Village 64 Farm School Village 64 Four Mile Creek Village 65 Dirt Lodge Creek Village 65 Grand River Village 65 Cheyenne Creek Village 66 Village Opposite Farm School 66 Discussion 66 Abandonment of the Missouri River 67 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 69 Internal Evidence: Biesterfeldt 69 Tribal Identification: Biesterfeldt 70 Missouri Valley and High Plains Sites 70 LITERATURE CITED 72 APPENDIX: A Factor Analysis of Pottery from Five Houses at Biesterfeldt. By Dan M. Healan 76 PLATES 79 INDEX 99 Tables TEXT 1. Selected attributes of cord-wrapped rod-impressed rim sherds 26 2. Selected attributes of bead- and cord-impressed rim sherds 29 3. Selected attributes of miscellaneous rim sherds 32 4. Body sherd frequencies 33 5. Provenience of non-ceramic artifacts 43 6. Identified faunal remains 44 APPENDIX A. Inter-unit correlation coefficients with multiple correlation coefficients in the principal diagonal 77 B. Principal components 77 C. Raw data for factor analysis 77 Illustrations FIGURES 1. Physiographic diagram of North Dakota 5 2. The 1908 Libby-Stout map of Biesterfeldt, with some features from the 1890 Lewis map and from Strong's excavations 7 3. The 1908 Libby-Stout map of Biesterfeldt, showing the 1938 excavations 8 4. Excavations along the margin of the fortification ditch 10 5. Ground plan of House 4 13 6. Ground plan of House 7 1'^ 7. Ground plan of House 11 1^ 8. Ground plan of House 16 1^ 9. Ground plan of House 21 1^ 10. Ground plan of House 23 19 11. Ground plan of House 36 20 12. Cross sections of Houses 36, 23, and 2 21 13. Cross sections of representative exterior pits 23 14. Pottery shoulder patterns, schematically illustrated 28 15. Pottery rim profiles a-r 30 16. Traditional locations for certain Cheyenne villages on and near the Missouri River . 61 PLATES 1. The Biesterfeldt site and adjoining topography 80 2. General views of the site 81 3. Views of the Sheyenne River valley and delta 82 4. The excavated House 16 83 5. Excavated features 84 6. Excavated features 85 7. Cord-wrapped rod-impressed rim sherds 86 8. Bead- and cord-impressed rim sherds 87 9. Miscellaneous rim sherds 88 10. Plasticene impressions from rim sherds, and miscellaneous body sherds 89 11. Chipped stone artifacts 90 12. Miscellaneous chipped stone items 91 13. Ground stone tools: mauls and hammers 92 14. Ground stone tools and shell artifacts 93 15. Miscellaneous ground stone objects 94 16. Bone tools 95 17. Bone tools 96 18. Small bone artifacts and ornaments 97 19. Miscellaneous trade and intrusive items 98 20. Trade goods of iron or steel and brass 99 10. Biesterfeldt: A Post- Contact Coalescent Site on the Northeastern Plains Introduction No adequate nor honest introduction to the arche- ology of the Biesterfeldt site and its significance can be offered without acknowledging, once more, the very great debt Plains prehistory owes to William Duncan Strong. Without doubt. Strong is best known for his work in Nebraska and for his Introduc- tion to Nebraska Archeology (Strong, 1935), a work which set the stage for systematic archeological re- search in that state and adjoining states. From this standpoint, the brief summary he pre- pared in 1939, "From History to Prehistory in the Northern Great Plains" (Strong, 1940) is fully as sig- nificant. This article was a logical extension of the work he began ten years earlier in Nebraska, and in this essay he successfully placed the three Plains vil- lage tribes of that area (Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara) in a more realistic frame of reference than they formerly occupied. More to the point here, however, are the consequences this article had on our concep- tions of the culture history of the Cheyenne Indians while they were a horticultural, sedentary village tribe in eastern North Dakota. Strong identified the Biesterfeldt site as a late 18th-century Cheyenne vil- lage site, an identification which is questioned here on both empirical and theoretical grounds. Nevertheless, Strong's impact on our present con- cept of the Plains, and his emphasis on historical studies, are still very much with us today. It was Strong who successfully challenged Wissler's state- ments relating to the recency of occupation of the Plains. In 1907 Wissler states that "the peopling of the Plains' proper was a recent phenomenon due in part to the introduction of the horse and the displacement of tribes by white settlements." He continues: "The solution to this problem must depend in part upon research following the methods of archaeology.'' In 1908 he reemphasized this point, stressing the fact that practically all the peoples occupying the Great Plains in historic times could be traced beyond its borders, and pointing out the need for archeo- Associate Professor of Anthropology and Director, River Basin Arch- aeology, 15 Switzler Hall, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri logical research in the central part of the area to establish links between history and prehistory. Despite the great ethnological activity in the region following this pronouncement, active his- torical archeology in the central Plains did not actually begin for some 20 years. . . . Strange to say, in the northern Great Plains accomplishment preceded theorizing. In 1906, stimulated by Dixon, two of his then students. Will and Spinden, produced the first anthropo- logical study of the area coordinating all that was then known concerning the history, ethnology, linguistics, physical anthro- pology, and archeology of a single tribe. It has not, as yet [even in 1971], been followed up by fuller and more intensive coordi- nated studies of a similar nature despite the fact that the impor- tance of the method employed must be manifest to all (1940, pp. 353-354). The lack of the archeological research he deplored has been rectified, in large part, by the recent syste- matic investigations of institutions cooperating with the National Park Service in the Inter-Agency Arche- ological Salvage Program, including the Smithsonian Institution. Bowers' (1950; 1965) studies of Mandan and Hidatsa social and ceremonial organization have contributed significantly to our knowledge of the "broken but culturally important sedentary tribes." The "markedly distorted picture of one of the most interesting culture areas in the New World" has thus, to some extent, been modified. But it is still a fact that the demands of salvage archeology, and the now all but extinct interest in "memory cultures" by eth- nologists have contributed to a markedly one-sided picture of the culture history of the area. Even at this date, it is not unreasonable to suggest that were Strong reviewing the progress made since 1940, he might repeat his statement that the present state of affairs may be corrected by a return to the coordinated or creatively historical method originally advocated by both Dixon and Wissler (1940, p. 354). Until 1945, when the Smithsonian Institution estab- lished the River Basin Surveys, little archeological work had been published for the Northern Plains since Will and Spinden. By 1940, several sites had been dug in the Dakotas by Strong or his students, but SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 none of them were yet reported. Between 1906 and 1940, the State Historical Society of North Dakota, the South Dakota Historical Society, Logan Museum of Beloit College, the Bureau of American Ethnology, and Columbia University all carried out some arche- ological research in the area. In addition to the intensive ethnological attack on the area, sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History, there has also been a vast amount of scattered ethnological and lin- guistic research accomplished by other institutions. Only physi- cal anthropology seems recently to have been completely neglected. With increasing amounts of historic and prehistoric skeletal material becoming available, this neglect of a rich field becomes more and more inexcusable (Strong, 1940, p. 354). Physical anthropology has attracted the attention of several specialists, notably Bass (e.g., 1964) and his students, but work is still rare for the Northern Plains. The volume of new data which has accumulated since 1940 is difficult to estimate, but it is staggering. "To attempt to sum up even the published material on the northern Plains" in 1940 was impossible in the brief essay Strong wrote; needless to say, it is more difficult today. Nevertheless, following the "creatively historical method" of working from the historic known to the prehistoric unknown. Strong established historic criteria for the Mandan, Hidatsa, Arikara, and Cheyenne, and outlined them in his 1940 article. For the Mandan and Arikara, his "his- toric criteria" have held up rather well; those for the Hidatsa remain to be appraised; and those for the Cheyenne are the subject of this paper. The Cheyenne may be fairly readily isolated from the somewhat homogeneous group of tribes which constituted the "typical" historic equestrian Northern Plains nomads. Of these groups, only the Cheyenne, Arapaho, Blackfoot, and Gros Ventre (Atsina) are Algonquian-speakers, among the predominantly Siouan-speaking Plains Indians. They are not, how- ever, known to be biologically distinctive; by the his- toric period they had thoroughly mixed with Dakota, Arapaho, Pawnee, Kiowa, Ute. and white American. Nothing is known of their early historic, not to men- tion protohistoric, population characteristics. A num- ber of elements of Cheyenne culture do clearly set them apart from their neighbors: their political or- ganization (specifically the Council of Forty-four) , two of their important ceremonies (Medicine Arrows and the Suhtai-derived Buffalo Cap) , and their very intense in-group sentiment—even though they ab- sorbed another tribe, the Suhtai, and later split into Northern and Southern divisions. The interactional patterns of the group were nevertheless strongly knit, yet they were accustomed to very rapid culture change. Strong's work at Biesterfeldt led him to appreciate the rapid changes the Cheyenne had undergone. He commented to this effect in the following words: In regard to the Cheyenne, we are . . . fortunate since direct archeological research has recently verified and extended the legendary and scant historical data concerning their recent west- ward movement and former horticultural mode of life. From the valley of the Minnesota the Cheyenne are believed to have moved westward into the Red River valley, occupying at least one village on the Great Bend of the Sheyenne River . . . This village . . yielded much new data on their basically sedentary life in the period circa 1750. Within the next 50 years the bulk of the tribe became fully equestrian, completely nomadic, had abandoned agriculture and were ranging far west and south of the Missouri River (Strong, 1940, p. 359). It was Mooney who most persuasively commented on the significance of the study of Cheyenne history, when he pointed out that they are of special interest to the ethnologist as a rare instance of a sedentary and agricultural people cut off from the main body of their kindred and transformed by pressure of circumstance within the historic period into a race of nomad and predatory hunters, with such entire change of habit and ceremony that the old life is remembered only in sacred tradition and would seem impossible . . but for the connected documentary proof of the fact (Mooney, 1905-07, p. 361). He further points out that The most salient fact brought out by a study of the Cheyenne is that of the newness of everything which they have, with the single exception of the Sacred Arrow cult. In the comparatively short space of two centuries, . . they have shifted their habitat by nearly a thousand miles, from the sheltered timber country to the open plains, have so completely lost their old life, and have borrowed so much from the tribes of their new surround- ing, that if it were not for their Algonquian speech and the known facts of history, we should fail to recognize in the roving buffalo hunters of the upper Arkansas the same people who once planted corn, fished in the lakes, and built their earth-covered lodges at the head of the Mississippi. Their great Sun Dance came from one tribe; their council system from another, the Omaha dance. Ghost Dance, and Peyote rite from others; their warrior organization as they now have it, their shield system, their whole equestrian habit, their tipis and their tipi life, are all of recent adoption and development. . Their very blood has changed and become dilute with wholesale incorporation of captives and intermarriage with entirely alien elements—Sioux, Ute, Kiowa, and Pawnee. Their existing customs and cere- monials are under constant change, and are not now what they were even ten years ago (Mooney, 1905-07, pp. 420-421). Strong summarized this probably overenthusiastic statement as follows: The "fighting Cheyenne" have always claimed that they were formerly horticulturalists living in settled villages. Yet, in his- tory, they are famous as warlike, equestrian nomads. . . . The evidence [obtained from Biesterfeldt] thus revealed amply testi- fied to the truth of Cheyenne tradition and indicated how amazingly rapid and complete their cultural transformation into a "typical" Plains tribe had been (Strong, 1940, p. 370). The widespread acceptance of Biesterfeldt as a INTRODUCTION Cheyenne village of the late 18th century has rein- forced a general belief that non-Plains groups could and did adapt their lifeways to the distinctive Plains environment almost overnight—within a generation, at least. This belief has colored the thinking not only of ethnologists, but of archeologists. There is often the tendency, when links in an archeological sequence are weak or lacking, to point to the example of the Cheyenne to explain this; that is, cultural adaptation to the Plains may have been so rapid that we might not find transitional sites because of their rarity. For these reasons it is imperative that we know and under- stand Cheyenne culture history. We do not deny that peoples moved into the Plains and adjusted rapidly to this new environment. But the movements and con- sequent adjustments must be firmly documented be- fore we use their example to support other inferences —and we lack firm documentation for the Cheyenne, a "type tribe," in the purported rapidity of their ad- justment to the Plains. Environmental Setting The Red River, which flows north into Lake Winni- peg and then, via the Nelson River, into Hudson Bay, forms the entirety of the eastern border of the State of North Dakota and part of the western margin of Minnesota. This river, sometimes referred to as the Red River of the North (to distinguish it from the river of the same name in south-central United States), is fed by a number of tributary streams origi- nating in both North Dakota and Minnesota. One of the major streams contributing to its flow is the Sheyenne River, the headwaters of which lie in cen- tral North Dakota. The Biesterfeldt site is on the right bank of this stream in Ransom County, some seventy kilometers southwest of the city of Fargo, and eighteen kilom- eters east of the town of Lisbon, in southeastern North Dakota. This part of the Dakotas is within the Central Lowlands province (Fenneman, 1938) , which extends to the west as far as the Coteau du Missouri, which forms the boundary between this province and the Great Plains province (Figure 1) . The entirety of the Central Lowlands in the Dakotas has been glaciated, and this fact is responsible for the major topographic features in this area. The topog- raphy here is influenced only slightly by the contours of the bedrock surfaces, for bedrock is blanketed by either glacial drift or vast sheets of alluvium. The site itself is on the boundary between two major subdivisions of the Central Lowlands: the Red River valley and the Drift Prairies. This boundary consists of an escarpment 100 to 150 meters high, which once formed the western shore of a glacial lake. The site is on the south bank of the Sheyenne River at the point where the river emerges from its incised trench through the Drift Prairies and spills out into the Red River valley. The Drift Prairies, west of the site, consist of gently rolling to hilly plains with poorly defined drainage, the result of glacial drift deposited on a nearly level erosional plain. The preglacial topography here is all but smothered by glacial drift or till, only the major rivers having penetrated this deposit. This area has changed only slightly since the glaciers re- ceded, for drainage patterns have not yet had time to reestablish themselves. The major physiographic features are oriented north and south in the Drift Prairies: the irregular ground moraines (formed near the base of moving glaciers) with gently undulating surfaces, and the linear belts of end moraines, with their hilly topography, where marshes and lakes abound in undrained depressions. There are only three major river systems in south- eastern North Dakota. The Red River flows north through a former glacial lake bed; and the Sheyenne and James rivers flow south through valleys deeply incised into the Drift Prairies. In its meandering through the Drift Prairies, the Sheyenne has cut a val- ley averaging about 70 meters deep, and from 1.5 to six kilometers in width, although it averages about two kilometers wide (Plate 3fl) . The valley walls are generally steep, dropping rapidly to gravel-capped ter- races. Since the Sheyenne valley was formed as a glacial outwash channel, various stages of down- cutting are recorded: there are four terrace levels along the valley walls. Many of them are capped by coarse gravel, but others are eroded into bedrock or drift by glacial melt water (Kelly, 1966) . The next major drainage to the west, the James River, flows south and empties into the Missouri, ultimately to flow into the Gulf of Mexico. The divide between the streams entering Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Mexico lies between these two river systems. The view to the east of Biesterfeldt consists of a flat and monotonous plain, the floor of the glacial Lake Agassiz. During glacial periods the streams flowing into Hudson Bay were ponded, and flooded thousands of square kilometers of Minnesota, North Dakota, Manitoba, and Ontario, forming a lake larger than the combined existing Great Lakes, and about 150 meters deep. Lake Agassiz overflowed to the south through a pass along the present course of Lake Traverse and Big Stone Lake, then down the Minne- ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING O 0 50 —I— 80 100 miles 160 km. FIGURE 1.— Physiographic diagram of North Dakota (copyright 1952 by L. R. Goodman). Arrow depicts the location of the Biesterfeldt site. sota River valley. When this outlet was abandoned, side streams such as the Sheyenne continued to drop their silt into the valley. Overlying this is some al- luvium of recent streams, which is responsible for the vast and very flat topography for which the valley is famous. The Sheyenne and other rivers built exten- sive sand deltas where they flowed into the lake. The delta of the Sheyenne (on which the Biesterfeldt site is situated) covers some 2000 square kilometers. The low gradient of the Red River to the north is responsible for the elaborate meanders of its channel. Throughout most of the lake bed erosion has not yet begun, and much of the area is swampy. As the lake receded to the north, the mouth of the Sheyenne and of other streams followed the retreating shore, thus forming the prominent bends that characterize the tributaries of the Red River. The rich bottomlands of the Red River valley have been heavily cultivated for a very long time, and the lower reaches of the Sheyenne River—before it breaks out into the Red River valley—have been signifi- cantly, but not profoundly, altered by cultivation. Nevertheless, it is not too difficult today to envision the terrain as it was before 1800, and in this effort we are greatly indebted to Alexander Henry the Younger, who penned a fairly vivid word picture of the valley during his travels in the Red River valley in 1800— at a time when the Biesterfeldt site had probably been abandoned for no more than a decade. [The Sheyenne River] takes its water out of a large marsh and some small lakes about 15 leagues from the Missouri, where there are no woods—nothing but a few willows. It runs E. within a few miles of Lac du Diable [Devil's Lake], opposite which it begins to have well-wooded banks; and as it increases in size, the valley spreads and the banks are high. This branch is navigable only for small canoes, in the spring, when the water is high. Beavers are more numerous than elsewhere; grizzly bears are to be seen in droves; and it may be called the nursery of buffalo and red deer [elk] (Coucs, 1897, vol. 1, p. 145). No systematic compendium of the fauna in this area is necessary here, since faunal remains were not sys- tematically saved at Biesterfeldt. Henry's journals for the winter of 1800-1801, however, amply charac- SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 terize the native fauna in the Red River valley. Henry was enthusiastic about the large numbers of bison, elk, moose, bears, and raccoon he and his com- panions saw and killed, especially near the mouth of Park River, which empties into the Red River about 160 kilometers north of the mouth of the Sheyenne River. The entrance of [Park River] is frequented by buffalo, red deer [elk], moose, and bears; indeed, it appears that the higher we go, the more numerous are red deer and bears. On the beach raccoon tracks are plentiful. Wolves are numerous and insolent (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 90). Bison (Bison bison) were present in vast numbers, as well as elk (Cervus canadensis) . Henry constantly comments on their quantity, as they "were every- where in sight, passing to and fro" (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 94) . The few spots of wood along [the Park River] have been ravaged by buffaloes; none but the large trees are standing, the bark of which is rubbed perfectly smooth, and heaps of wool and hair lie at the foot of the trees. The bare ground is more trampled by these cattle than the gate of a farm-yard (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 99). The large droves of elk and bison provided abundant and easily obtained game, but moose (Alces anieri- cana), black bears (Euarctos americanns), and rac- coon (Procyon lotor) were also common and popular food animals. Bears make prodigious ravages in the brush and willows; the plum trees are torn to pieces, and every tree that bears fruit has shared the same fate; the tops of the oaks are also very roughly handled, broken, and torn down, to get the acorns. The havoc they commit is astonishing; their dung lies about in the woods as plentiful as that of the buffalo in the meadow (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, pp. 101-102). In view of this abundance of game, it is expectable that "wolves are numerous and insolent" and "go in large droves, and keep up a terrible howling, day and night" (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, pp. 90, 112). Fur-bearing animals such as otter (Lutra canaden- sis) , fisher (Martes pennanti) , and beaver {Castor canadensis) were present, as well as red fox (Vulpes fulva) in some number. Grizzly bears (Ursus horri- bilis) were not very common along the Red River, but abounded near Devil's Lake and on the upper Sheyenne River—in an area which was "a frontier of the Sioux, where none can hunt in safety, so they breed and multiply in security" (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 121) . Lesser mammals which annoyed Henry must have proved equally troublesome to the Indians: We are plagued by great numbers of mice, which destroy almost everything but metals; our strouds and blankets are nearly all damaged, and they even carry off our beads. At night we see them running in droves over the floor . (Coues, 1897, vol. I, p. 135). Wild rice and other attractions in the swamps and wooded river margins proved irresistible lures for swans [Olor columbianus), heron (Ardeidae), geese, and ducks of various kinds, as well as white and gray cranes (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 84) Other birds men- tioned by Henry include eagles and ruffed grouse or "pheasants" (Bonasa umbellus) . The Ojibway along the Red River obtained, often with nets, numerous species of fish: sturgeon (Acipenser spp.) , catfish (Ictalurus nebulosus), mooneye herring or "lacaishe" (Hiodon tergisus), pike {Esox lucius) , walleye perch (Stizostedion vitreum) , freshwater drum (Aplodino- tus gninniens) , sunfish or "bream" (Lepomis spp.), and other species. How closely this picture of abundance tallies with the situation at the time Biesterfeldt was occupied is not clear, but it is reasonable to assume that condi- tions had not altered radically since its abandonment. Little wonder, then, that Henry commented: This is a delightful country, and, were it not for perpetual wars, the natives might be the happiest people upon earth (Coues, 1897, vol. 1, p. 99). The Biesterfeldt Site SITE DESCRIPTION channel of the Sheyenne River. The site is at an ele- vation of 325 meters above sea level, and approxi- The Biesterfeldt site is on a high river terrace near mately ten meters above the present channel of the a now-abandoned bend in the river channel, with a river, now some distance to the west. The legal steep bank on the north side adjoining the former description is the northwest quarter of Section 28, ■■■''''''■■^^^^;;^A^«'/.!'-^ 100 feef -I 30 meters OOJJ O Q OQO P// €.a& o ° Plowed ,,.''\^ Entrance, from 1890 Lewis map FIGURE 2.—The 1908 Libby-Stout map of Biesterfeldt, with some features from the 1890 Lewis map and from Strong's excavations. 8 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Township 134 North, Range 54 Wes^t. The site was first surveyed by Orin G. Libby and A. B. Stout on 17 June 1908. Their map, the only detailed plat of the site on record, was used by Strong and is the base for the present maps (Figures 2 and 3) Maps prepared by Libby and Stout have been found to be generally accurate for other sites in the Dakotas, so there is no reason to feel that their map of Biester- feldt is anything other than a reasonable plat of what actually existed there in 1908. Donald J. Lehmer and I chained the diameter of the site along the fence line in 1967, and found it to be 170 meters. The general accuracy of their map may be readily checked by reference to the modern aerial photograph (Plate The village was on the farm property of Mr. Louis Biesterfeld, and was partly cultivated in 1908. A fence line, bisecting the site along a roughly east-west axis, divided the cultivated south half from an undis- turbed pasture adjoining the former river bank. The Libby-Stout map shows thirty-seven house depressions wholly or partially in the uncultivated area, and twenty-five depressions in the cultivated part. Surface evidence of houses in the latter area has been obliter- ated by continued cultivation, but Will (1914, p. 74) noted that not only the ditch but the house depres- sions in this area were discernible on his visits to the site. I am not sure why Strong (1940, p. 371) asserts there were rings of about seventy houses within the ditch, when the map he accepted as "essentially accu- rate" clearly shows only sixty-two of them. The esti- • Pit O Refuse-littered depression 0 Excavated area House 23 : 3 Trenches 1,5 a.>' r~\ 'o o Trench 4 Trench 2 o v\»^ ^,o X:-^D O II...I'"" ^^^^„M' 100 feet """''';,, Ditch ,,.«>'^''^' \ ■ i' ■ I ■—I ' J 30 meters FIGURE 3.—The 1908 Libby-Stout map of Biesterfeldt, showing the 1938 excavations. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE mate of seventy houses is certainly not unreasonable, for not only is there room within the ditch for at least eight more dwellings without encroaching on the open "plaza" near the village center, but Strong did find one house (House 19) where Libby and Stout recorded a "cache pit." The present area between the terrace edge and the inner rim of the fortification ditch is about 3.5 acres. Accepting the number of houses on the Libby-Stout map at face value (plus House 19) , there are sixty- two structures within the fortified area, giving the site a density of about 18 houses per acre. This is a very high density for a site of this sort, except that the houses here are somewhat smaller than their counter- parts at many sites on the Missouri River. Libby and Stout also placed thirty-eight small cir- cles on their map representing small depressions which were distinct enough that they felt justified in identifying them as cache pits. They were one to 2.5 meters in diameter and up to thirty centimeters deep (Will, 1914, p. 74) . There were actually more pits than this at the site, as Strong discovered several in his excavations that were not shown on the 1908 map. The village is on the highest part of the river bank on the south side of an old meander of the Sheyenne, from which the land slopes away in every direction— providing a commanding view of the glacial delta to the south and east (Plate 2a) . There is a shallow ravine to the east, and a low marshy area just west of the site, where there was a spring not far from the former river bank. The bluff on the north side of the village slopes down to the abandoned river channel at about a forty-five degree angle, and is about ten meters high. The ditch enclosing the site is oval in plan, with its greatest diameter from east to west, a distance of about 170 meters. The ditch forms an arc enclosing about 3.5 acres, swinging from the bluff edge around the dwellings, and back to the bluff (Plate 2b) . The ditch line is not complicated by bastions or any other visible features. Will (1914, pp. 74-75) described the ditch as about five to ten meters wide. Where it abutted against the bluff edge it was especially prom- inent, being nearly a meter deep. Elsewhere (except for the cultivated portion) it was about half a meter deep. He continues: The house rings are from 6 inches to 2 feet deep in the unplowed area and from 17 to 42 feet in diameter, the average being above thirty feet [Plate Sb]. There are no traces of refuse heaps any- where. The refuse dump seems to have been almost entirely over the side of the bluff (1914, p. 75). Strong discovered that all of the houses and caches were just below the present ground level, a few centi- meters below the sod. There had been very little deposition since the site was abandoned. The sod, about eight centimeters thick, was nearly black in color. Below it was a dark, humus-laden sandy loam, underlain at variable depths by gray, yellow, and brown clay. The topsoil was easily dug after the sod was removed. Small soil samples, extracted from cavities in many of the bone artifacts, provided the soil pH for the fill in houses and cache pits. Implements from many dif- ferent parts of the site were checked, and yielded soil which provided a pH of 6.5 to 7.0. Bone preservation at the site was consequently excellent. FIELDWORK The 1938 excavations sectioned the fortification ditch and explored the ditch margins for a palisade or stockade line in seven excavation units; fully exposed or tested ten of the dwellings and other major struc- tures; and sectioned or excavated nineteen exterior features, most of them cache or refuse pits (Figure 3) . Fortification System The site was enclosed by an oval ditch except on the side facing the former river channel. There were no bastions or other special features visible from the surface or revealed in the excavations. The dimen- sions of the ditch in the single excavation which cross sectioned it, Palisade Trench 1, were: width, 3.35 meters; depth, 1.20 meters. The ditch walls were sloping and the floor was nearly flat (Figure 12, c-d) . A few irregular holes that may have been post holes were noted in four of the five trenches along the inner side of the ditch (Palisade Trenches 2-5) , but there was no evidence for an even, regular palisade line in them. Field notes written by crew members list the diameters and depths of "features" they identified as post holes, and Strong's field notes mention that "ninnerous soft places occur in the palisade trenches, but there are only a few definite post molds." Else- where in his field notes, he states that there were no definite posts, although there were a number of soft spots on the excavation floors. His final and pub- lished judgment was that there was no positive evi- dence for a regular palisade in any of the seven pali- sade trenches, either inside or outside the ditch (Strong, 1940, p. 371) The fact that excavations elsewhere in the site did not yield these ambiguous soft spots suggests that they may, in fact, represent a palisade of some sort. They were, after all, present in the very areas where one would expect a palisade line. The soft spots in Pali- 10 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 sade Trenches 2-5 are hardly regular, and scarcely compare with the even, neatly spaced palisade posts usually found in fortified earth lodge sites along the Missouri River. Perhaps the soft spots represent post holes which supported some form of wall other than a post pali- sade, but the cross section of the ditch (Figure 12, c) reveals nothing which suggests an earthen embank- ment on either side of the ditch. Since it was such a common Plains village pattern to supplement a ditch with some form of palisade, I feel that Strong's asser- tion that "no positive evidence" of a palisade was present may be technically accurate, but—at the risk of disagreeing with the excavator regarding his own field data—that it is open to serious question. Palisade Trenches 1 and 5 FIGURES 4,12 Trench 3 Trench 1 was an excavation 16.0 meters long and 1.50 meters wide, oriented nearly east and west. It Edge of fortification ditch Trench 4 Trenches I a 5 Trench 2 • Post fiole (quaationabl9) 0 Z 4 "-<—• h (- 0 6 12 FIGURE 4.—Excavations along the margin of the fortification ditch. '- - Trench 7 was dug across the fortification ditch to the center of House 2, and was designed to section the ditch and locate the palisade post line. Trench 5 was a unit dug to the north near the center of Trench 1. It was 2.60 meters north and south, and 1.20 meters east and west. The fortification ditch originated at a level very near the ground surface, with only a thin layer of sod over its margins. It was 3.35 meters wide at the top, and sloped down to an irregular floor about 1.80 meters wide; depth from the surface was 1.20 meters. The ditch fill consisted of dark earth, with lenses of mixed clay; the smaller ditch exposed on the north profilfe ditch was filled with water-laid yellow and brown clay and black sand (Plate 5b) . Only one possible palisade post was in the two units, in Trench 5, although the main trench passed directly over the area in which a palisade line might be expected. Significant finds in the trenches included numerous sherds, a hammerstone, a few pieces of broken bison bone, and some stone—but no chipped stone tools, or even flakes. Relative to other parts of the site it was a very sterile area. Refuse must have been thrown in pits or over the river bank. Palisade Trench 2 FIGURE 4 This excavation was south of Palisade Trench 1, and west of House 1, on the inner slope of the ditch. It consisted of a north-south trench 7.50 meters long and 1.20 meters wide, with a rectangular extension on its east wall 2.90 meters long. The pit was dug to a depth of 18 cm on the west wall, and to a depth of 38 cm on the east wall, the difference in the depth of the level floor due to the fact that the ground sloped up to the east. Excavation was carried down into a black humus containing pockets of sand. Use of a probe led the excavator to feel that some of these pockets may have been shallow post molds, although the "molds" formed no regular pattern. Only those indicated on the excavation map (Figure 4) had sufficient defini- tion and arrangement to even consider as posts; they averaged 9 cm in diameter and 10 cm in depth. The unit contained some broken bone. Palisade Trench 3 FIGURE 4 This north and south trench, along the inner slope of the northeast end of the fortification ditch, was northeast of House 30. The maximum depth of the trench was 33 cm, near the center of the unit. It cut THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 11 through a black humus mixed with sand. The hori- zontal floor of the excavation extended to the ground surface on the east side. Most of the "post molds" were discovered by probing; a few were well defined. They averaged 13 cm in diameter and 18 cm in depth. A few sherds were in the unit. Palisade Trench 4 FIGURE 4 One trench was dug along the inner slope of the ditch on the northeast margin of the site about 10 meters north of the fence line. The trench, 7.90 meters long and 1.20 meters wide, was dug to a depth of about 20 cm on its west edge, through a black hu- mus mixed with sand. The level trench floor ex- tended to the surface slope on the east side of the unit. The post molds were fairly well defined, most of them occurring in pairs. All except one of the molds were discovered by probing. This mold con- tained a stone and a twig (?) in the brown-stained fill. Average depth and diameter, 11 cm. Palisade Trench 6 FIGURE 4 A small trench, dug on the outer slope of the ditch on the northeast margin of the site, was northeast of House 32 and north of Palisade Trench 4. Its long axis was parallel to the midline of the ditch, and was dug to a depth of 20 cm into soft black sand; it was 2.20 meters long and 2.0 meters wide. A yellow gumbo-like soil was near the surface, at a depth of about three inches. The entire area was full of bur- rows, but no possible post holes were identified. The more significant finds included a shell knife or scraper, a "snub-nosed" arrowpoint, and a group of sherds at a depth of 15 to 20 cm. A piece of "coal-like substance" was found just below the sod, but it un- fortunately is not now in the collections. Palisade Trench 7 FIGURE 4 This excavation was on the inner slope of the ditch on the northeast margin of the site, between Palisade Trenches 3 and 4. There are no notes on the unit, so it apparently contained nothing of significance. Houses Seven structures in the village were largely or com- pletely excavated, and limited tests were made in three others. All houses were mapped using a plane table and leaf alidade set in the house center over the fireplace; features were measured using a steel tape. All of the houses investigated were circular in out- line, as the surface depressions indicated. The gen- eral pattern of these structures can be briefly sum- marized: Each house had a central fireplace, circular or oval in outline, containing ash and underlain by burned earth. Each structure adequately tested had four center posts set in the form of a square around the central fireplace; these posts were oriented approximately to the four cardinal points. Covered entrance passages were noted in four of the houses; the evidence was equivocal in House 7 (a very small structure) ; and in two houses the excavations were incomplete. Except for the large House 16, the entry to which opens southwest upon an open area or "plaza," the house entrances were directed to the southeast. None of the houses contained any definite cache pits, although Houses 11 and 16 contained some shal- low pits. Many posts were braced in position with bison or other large bones or with stones. Some of the post holes contained wood in good condition. All houses had burned, and charred beams or char- coal were on the floors of all of them. Characteristic furnishings in all houses were num- erous large and small stones, many of which had well- used grinding surfaces. Strong described three house types from the site, but these three forms can be resolved into two basic architectural styles: House 16, the largest and best preserved of those dug, conforms to the common historic Plains earth lodge pattern, and does not differ significantly in plan from those of the Mandan, Hidatsa, and Arikara. From its location in the village, it may well have been a ceremonial lodge or center. This structure had four center posts, eight (or perhaps nine) vertical wall posts, and a shallow trench around the edge of the house floor in which the butts of the leaner posts were rested. Details of the roof supports and the roof cov- ering can be inferred from the detailed description of Hidatsa lodges provided by Wilson (1934) . Three of the dwellings (Houses 4, 7, and 36) had four center posts, but lacked vertical wall posts. The butts of the rafters or leaners rested on the pit edges or on an elevated border around the lodge, and their tops leaned against stringers which connected the four center posts. These houses are directly comparable to dwellings at Spotted Bear, Demery, and Fire Heart Creek on the Missouri River (Hurt, 1954; Woolworth 12 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 and Wood, 1964; Lehmer, 1966) . Three other struc- tures (Houses 11, 21, and 23) had four center posts, the rafters or leaners set in shallow post holes or in a shallow trench around the margin of the house floor. Again, the tops of the leaners rested against stringers which connected the four center posts. These struc- tures appear to be elaborate models of the kind of shelter described (Wilson, 1934, pp. 411-415) as hunting lodges for the Hidatsa. House 2 FIGURE 12 Surface indications: A circular depression in the sod, about six meters in diameter and about 30 cm deep. Floor: The house floor level was about 20 cm be- low the ground level. It was littered with yellow and black sand, brown clay, burned clay and charcoal— including several small charred beams lying hori- zontally on the floor. Fireplace: A hearth exposed in the east end of Palisade Trench 1, which sectioned the ditch and this house, is probably the central fireplace. It was about 1.45 meters wide and was filled with gray-white ash. House 4 FIGURE 5 Surface indications: A circular depression in the sod about twelve meters in diameter and 30 cm deep. Roof supports: Four center posts in which the wood remained. The posts were wedged into the holes with large pieces of bison bone. Fireplace: Circular in outline and 70 cm in diam- eter. It contained 5 cm of ash, underlain by 8 cm of burned earth. Entrance: Directed to the southeast, lined by large and distinct post holes; it was 9.75 meters long and a meter wide. Its surface was packed with hard, fired soil, and sloped up from the general house floor. Floor: A shallow, dish-shaped pit about seven meters in diameter, with a distinct rim. White clay on the floor made the floor level simple to define. Leaners: The butts of leaner posts rested directly on the edge of the house floor rim, 18 cm below the surface. Numerous charred leaners lay on the floor, all of them pointing to the house center, with several of their ends resting on the house rim. Floor features: A layer of ash on the northwest edge of the house was about 3 cm thick. Comments: This house had burned, with many charred leaners and much burned yellow clay on the floor. The structure was completely excavated. House 7 FIGURE 6, PLATE 6b Surface indications: The saucer-shaped house de- pression was about seven meters in diameter and 45 cm deep. Relative to other houses it was small and deep. Roof supports: Four hard-packed center posts only, set about 1.5 meters apart. Fireplace: The top of this feature was 30 cm from the ground surface. Diameter, 64 cm; it contained 8 cm of ash, and was underlain by 5 cm of burned earth. Entrance: There was no definite entrance passage, although Strong felt it was to the southeast. Testing in this sector of the house exposed a large patch of ash, but no entry features. Floor: The floor was sharply dish-shaped; it was irregular and not well defined. Patches of yellow clay were present on the floor, but not as marked as in some houses. Assumed depth of floor level, 40 cm. The actual floor perimeter was probably beyond the excavation limits. Estimated floor diameter, about five meters. Leaners: Not exposed or detected m the excava- tions. Comments: This house had burned, since charred beams were on the floor. It was not completely exca- vated. Strong thought it may have been a "menstrual hut" or the lodge of an old woman. House 11 FIGURE 7 Surface indications: The house was marked by a distinct basin-shaped depression 13.40 meters in diameter. Roof supports: Four clear center posts were ex- posed. Center post IV was 45 cm in diameter. There were no definite vertical wall posts, although careful skimming was carried out looking for them. Fireplace: The central fireplace was oval in plan, with a maximum north and south diameter of 1.35 meters; it was exactly in the center of the square formed by the four center posts. Entrance: Extended to the southeast for a distance of three meters from the line of leaners; it was 1.50 meters wide. Floor: About twelve meters in diameter, the mar- gin being clearly marked by a trench containing occa- sional butts of leaner posts. Leaners: A shallow, narrow trench around the house edge contained rare evidence of leaner posts. It was badly rodent-pitted, but contained a few definite posts. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 13 Hard, yellow fired soil floor Probable position of roof beams •^' Bone-braced post ho/e 0 Post t\ole (^ Grinding stone O Stone Excavation limit 10 feet J 1 3 meters wrw FIGURE 5.—Ground plan of House 4. 14 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Etige of hou39 depression Probabte positioti of roof beoins ^ Post bote ^ Grinding stone ea Stone 10 teel 3 meters FIGURE 6.—Ground plan of House 7. Floor features: A few small, irregular basins were present but were not plotted on the house map; there were no other indications of interior pits. Comments: This house had burned, as evidenced by much charcoal and many burned timbers on the floor; it was not completely excavated. The floor was not as well defined as in some houses. House 12 Comments: The field notes state that the entry passage of this dwelling was worked out, then testing was begun for the outer wall posts—but no further notes, nor any map of the excavation was apparently made. House 16 FIGURE 8, PLATES 4,5a Surface indications: A saucer-shaped depression in the sod 13.50 meters in diameter, one of the larger house depressions at the site. Roof supports: There were four large, well-spaced center posts, with pointed bottoms an "arm-length down." They had dark fill nearly as hard as the sur- rounding soil, clearly mixed, and contained wood dust and charcoal hard-packed throughout. Each post was braced with stones and bones. One hole contained the end of a post which was cut in a fashion suggest- ing cutting with a stone ax. This post may have been oak, but George Will identified most of the wood in the house as ash. Several vertical wall post holes were between the center posts and the leaners. Most of them were deep, clearly defined, and filled with decayed wood; only one of them, disturbed by an animal burrow, was uncertain. Leaners: A shallow trench encircled the house floor except for a gap at the entrance. It consisted of a shallow groove in the hard soil filled with decayed wood and charcoal; its softness led to much rodent disturbance. It contained a few definite post holes, but numerous, closely-spaced leaner post butts were the most common features. Entrance: The entrance was marked by a row of post holes on either side, with those on the northwest side set in a shallow trench. The fine-grained nature of the post fragments in the entry led George Will to believe they were basswood. The top of the roof beams of the entry were about 20 cm below the sur- face. The entry was about three meters long and 1.80 meters wide. Floor: The house floor was about 40 cm below the surface. The structure had burned, and there was much charcoal on the floor. The fire had been espe- cially hot on the south side of the house, although all areas were subjected to terrific heat. Burned clay was especially abundant around the entry and fire- place. There were many sherds in some areas, sug- gesting that beams had fallen on and broken complete vessels. The heat had overfired and split many sherds, and stones on the floor were cracked by the heat. Floor features: Just west of the square formed by the center posts was an area saturated with red pig- ment (hematite?) and covered with chokecherry or hackberry stones, wild plum and thorn apple (or rose hips) , identified by George Will. A grinding stone was nearby, just west of center post I. Fireplace: The top of the fireplace was about 40 cm below the sod. It was circular, about 90 cm in diameter, with an extension to the southwest. It con- tained 15 cm of ash and 13 cm of burned earth. House 21 FIGURE 9 Surface indications: This house depression is shown on the 1908 Libby-Stout map with two en- THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 15 Excavation limit Edge of house depression Probable position of roof beams Post tiole Stiallow trend) Grinding stone Stone 10 feet -r 3 meters FIGURE 7.—Ground plan of House 11. 16 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Excavation limit Edge of house depression Probable positition of roof beams 0 Post hole :.'.'.:.'.'.'.' Shallow trench \^ Cache (?) :?J> Yellow clay on floor rjr Charred roofing material (?) © Grinding stone O Stone Cache ? pen T r to feet -v 3 meters FIGURE 8.-Ground plan of House 16. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE Excavation limit 17 / Edge of house depression Probable position of roof beams •^- Bone- braced post t\ole 0 Post hole •.:!.'.'.". Shallow trench O Stone wrw 10 feet 3 meters FIGURE 9.—Ground plan of House 2\. 18 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 trances, but only the southeast entry was verified. The depression was about 7.60 meters in diameter. Roof supports: Four distinct center posts. Post III was braced with large bones. Fireplace: The fireplace was deep and oval with a maximum diameter of 76 cm. It contained 15 cm of ash overlying 5 cm of burned earth. The top of the feature was 23 cm below the ground surface. Entrance: The entry was directed to the southeast; it was 1.80 meters long and 1.50 meters wide. Post butts in the north side were set in a shallow trench. Floor: The floor diameter was 8.20 meters; its sur- face was littered with numbers of burned beams. Leaners: Leaner post butts were set in a shallow trench which was defined for only part of the house perimeter. Comments: This house had burned; it was not completely excavated. House 23 FIGURES 10,12b Surface indications: A circular, saucer-shaped de- pression in the sod, 8.50 meters in diameter. Roof supports: Four distinct center posts, two of them (III and IV) with hard-packed fill; diameters, 18 to 28 cm. A number of dubious outer posts are marked by a question mark on the house map—the others contained wood dust. Fireplace: Circular in outline, measuring 70 cm in diameter; it contained 15 cm of ash, underlain by 10 cm of burned earth. Its top was 20 cm below the surface. Entrance: Directed to the southeast, but could not be clearly defined in spite of careful search. The suspected area of the entry floor was packed with yellow clay. Floor: Very shallow, but distinct, with yellow clay and charred timbers resting on it; diameter, 7.30 meters. Leaners: A few questionable post holes were near the floor edge. Human remains: A partial bundle burial was west of the entrance area, 1.50 meters south of the house pit rim. This inhumation was exposed at a depth of 56 cm, about 30 cm below the level of the entrance passage. Burial 1 consisted of a fragmentary skull and numerous long bones, ribs, vertebrae, and foot bones—none complete. Burial 2 consisted of a skull, 66 cm northwest of Burial 1, with the face up and directed to the south. House 29 FIGURE 2 Surface indications: A saucer-shaped depression. Floor: Depth below surface near center fireplace, 23 cm. Fireplace: Diameter, 66 cm; it contained 5 cm of ash. Excavation comments: A test pit 1.80 meters north and south, and 2.0 meters east and west was dug in the center of this depression, exposing only the cen- tral fireplace. House 36 FIGURES 11,12a Surface indications: The house depression as mapped in 1908 by Libby and Stout—and as observed by Strong in 1938—was quite irregular, measuring about 15.0 meters in diameter. There were two de- pressions near the south margin of the house ring (Figure 2) . Roof supports: Four well-defined center posts. Fireplace: A circular fireplace, about 74 cm in diameter, was directly centered among the four sup- port posts. It contained 8 cm of ash and some mol- lusk shells, and was underlain by 5 cm of burned earth. There was much broken pottery around it. Entrance: Probably lay under the back dirt, which was not moved to search for it. Floor: Strong felt that it was about fifteen meters in diameter. It was littered with much refuse, espe- cially near the fireplace. Floor features: A concentration of ash lay on the house floor north of the center fireplace. This fea- ture was plotted on the house cross section (Figure 12) , but not on the house map itself. The ash con- tained much pottery and other refuse. Associated features: The cross trench (Figure 12) revealed that one of the depressions on the south mar- gin of the house was a pit (Cache 18) ; this pit, which partially underlay the house margin, contained much stone and bison bone. Comments: This house had burned. It was not completely excavated. Exterior Pits Nineteen of the small, shallow depressions in the sod between the houses were tested, usually by trenches dug across their centers. Most of the depres- sions were from one to 2.50 meters in diameter and about 13 cm deep, containing vegetation which was rather less abundant than on the surrounding soil. Two depressions were rather large: the one which re- vealed the location of Cache 18 measured 9.50 by 4.60 meters and was 15 cm deep, and the depression of THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 19 Slopes down Excavation limit / Packed, yellow clay '' burial 2 ^;TO^(» 3yyy \ W / X ^./ Probable position of roof beams # Post hole ^ Grinding stone O Stone Bundle, burial I wrw FIGURE 10.—Ground plan of House 23. 10 feet 3 meters 20 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Inner entrance posts, House II — Probable position of roof beams # Post hole Excavation limit Estimated house circumference pence 10 feet -i 3 meters FIGURE 11.-Ground plan of House 36. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 21 « 11 22 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Cache 13 was so large that it was designated "House 19" on the 1908 Libby-Stout map. The cross trenches, from 2.10 to 5.50 meters long, were .60 to 1.20 meters wide and were dug to sterile soil. Twelve of the depressions investigated were caches or other pits having three basic cross sections. Most of them contained ash, animal bone (especially those of bison) , large numbers of stones, sherds, and some artifacts. Pit contents were probably more abundant than indicated in Tables 1-6, since the cross trenches which explored features were not al- ways expanded to remove all of the pit fill. Seven features appeared to be simply shallow, refuse- littered hollows in the original ground surface. No large refuse heaps were present, and it is unlikely that much garbage was thrown over the river bank and washed away. The twelve excavated pits are classified according to three basic cross sections, in Groups 1, 2, and 3. Group 1 Deep, undercut or U-shaped cache pits (Caches 1, 7, 18). These pits have straight to somewhat under- cut walls, and flat to dish-shaped floors. They most closely resemble the conventional bell-shaped pit of the Plains, but (perhaps because of the sandy soil) their cross sections are somewhat irregular. it. no. Diameter Depth (meters) (meters) 1 .90 .76 7 1.00 .86 18 .76 X 1.5-^ .74 Cache 1 (Figure 13) : Form—Somewhat undercut walls, with a circular, dish-shaped floor. Fill—Arti- facts tended to occur above a layer of crushed bone near the floor of the pit. Cache 7 (Figure 13) : Form—Apparently a deep pit with undercut walls or a U-shaped cross section. Fill—A dark brown to black sandy soil below the sod merged, at a depth of about 80 cm, with brown sandy soil. The lowermost 30 cm of fill was dark brown to black sandy soil. The brown sandy soil near the pit center was nearly sterile, but the fill above and below it contained many broken bones, moUusk shells, and stone, as well as hamme'rstones and sherds. Many fragmentary bison bones and sherds were near the pit floor. Cache 18 (Figure 12fl) : Form—About half the pit was excavated, showing that the form was like that of a bath tub, with somewhat undercut walls. Fill— Black earth, with lenses of soil; the fill contrasted strikingly with the subsoil. Refuse consisted largely of bison bone and stone. Comments—This feature underlay the south edge of the wall line of House 36, and was apparently dug and refilled before this house was built. Group 2 Deep, basin-shaped pits (Caches 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 15, 20) . More shallow than pits of Group 1, having flat to dish-shaped floors and insloping walls. Depth (meters) .61 .68 .41 .79 .71 .40 .43 Pit. no. Diameter (meters) 1.47 4 5 6 9 15 20 .86 1.58 1.20-f- 1.20+ 1.30 .89 Cache 3 (Figure 13) : Form—A deep, basin-shaped pit, clearly outlined in the subsoil. Fill—Most of the fill was brown to black earth, with several layers of ash. Specimens included fragmentary animal bone, sherds and other artifacts. Cache 4 (Figure 13) : Form—A deep, basin-shaped pit. Fill—A very black earth near the top was under- lain by ash and artifacts. The layer of ash was 2 to 8 cm thick. About 30 cm of brown earth with much animal bone underlay the ash, in which was em- bedded a brass trigger guard pendant (S-42) . Two pieces of birch bark were just above the pit floor. Cache 5: Form—A deep, basin-shaped pit with a relatively flat floor and sloping walls. Fill—Succes- sive layers, from the surface down, consisted of black earth, brown earth, and brown earth with much animal bone. An ash lens 5 cm thick was about 7 cm above the pit floor. Cache 6: Form—This pit, not fully exposed, had a deeply rounded floor and sloping walls, analogous to those of Cache 3 (Figure 13) . Fill—Dark mixed earth, with a layer of clay 25 cm below the surface, and a layer of ash at a depth of 48 cm. Animal bone was confined to the fill beneath the clay, and to the ash. The only artifact was a piece of flaked chert. Cache 9: Form—A deep, basin-shaped pit with sloping walls and a nearly flat floor, corresponding closely to the cross section of Cache 3 (Figure 13) . Fill—Dark earth, with lenses of ash and light bulT soil. Cache 15 (Figure 13) : Form—A shallow, basin- shaped pit with a nearly flat floor and gently sloping walls. Fill—Mixed earth, with one thin lens of ash containing sherds, cracked stone and bone, and articu- lated horse bones. Cache 20 (Figure 13) : Form—A deep, basin- shaped pit, with a convex floor and sloping walls. Fill—Mixed earth, with an ash lens near the pit cen- THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 23 Cache I Cache 7 Group I Cache IS 1 1^ ) ■ * ••/"!•:*?"•'■' /"^ Ash ^vio Bone layer Cache II I meter J 3 feet Group 3 FIGURE 13.—Cross sections of representative exterior pits. 24 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 ter. It contained a few sherds, some bones, and a mollusk shell knife or scraper. Group 3 Broad pits with irregular cross sections (Caches 11, 13). These irregular pits may have been pits of Group 2 which were disturbed by later aboriginal excavations or which caved in, or they may be refuse- filled borrow pits. Pit. no. Diameter Depth (meters) (meters) 11 3.05 .90 13 3.00 .68 Cache 11 (Figure 13) : Form—A broad, irregular pit, the center having a flat, circular floor 1.40 meters in diameter. Above this floor the pit walls slope irregularly to the surface. Fill—Largely black mixed earth, containing ash lenses and a layer of gray sandy soil. There were bark fragments just above the pit floor. The fill contained many broken bison bones, sherds, pieces of mollusk shell, bone artifacts, and broken hammerstones. Cache 13 (Figure 13) : Form—A large, irregular pit, the largest at the site. Fill—Consisted largely of mixed humus with several ash lenses, and a layer of bone near the floor. It contained large quantities of broken bison bone and stone, some pottery, a meta- podial flesher, and several stones with grinding surfaces. Comments—The original designation for this feature (House 19) was transferred by Strong to a "cache" which excavation showed was a house depression. Refuse-Littered Depressions Excavation showed that seven of the small, shallow depressions within the ditch (and one of them east of the ditch) were features other than cache or storage pits. They are recorded in the notes as "cache pits," but after excavation proved them otherwise they were not given other designations. Here, they are simply referred to as features, retaining Strong's field num- bers to avoid confusion in the existing catalog and note system. They include Features 2, 8, 10, 12, 16, 17, and 19. All of them appeared as shallow surface depressions containing some mixed earth beneath the sod. They are probably best interpreted as refuse disposal areas in shallow hollows on the former surface. Very little in the way of specimen material was in them; most of them contained shallow lenses of ash. Feature 2 contained much animal bone, mostly split bison bone, with hammerstones and "grinders." Feature 8 contained some bison bone. Feature 12 produced abundant animal bone and stone. Feature 16 contained mammal and fish bones. Feature 17 contained a rim sherd with inset white glass trade beads and a "fish operculum pendant." Feature 19 produced some bone and stone. ARTIFACTS Pottery The ceramics described below are all in the col- lections of the State Historical Society of North Dakota Museum in Bismarck. The sample available in 1967 consisted of 255 rim sherds and 3,105 body sherds: a total of 3,360 specimens. This figure is 407 sherds less than the 3,767 specimens Strong (1940, p. 373) reported from his excavations. This reduc- tion in numbers is a consequence of an intensive effort to fit and glue sherds together. For example, the 292 rim sherds with which the analysis began were reduced to 255 rims in the course of study, with an apparent "loss" of 37 rims. Catalog numbers cited for the sample denote the following: the prefix "S," that it was collected by Strong in 1938; the number "7993," that the sherds are accessioned as from the site, probably having been collected by George F. Will or Thad. C. Hecker. A few sherds with no catalog number ("No no.") were found with the collections. Although the latter two categories of sherds lack documentation, all of them conform to the classes established for Strong's original material, and there is no reason to believe they are not from the site. The bulk of this pottery was initially described by Strong (1940, pp. 373-374, pi. 8) , and was further discussed (using the descriptions and illustrations published by Strong) in Will and Hecker's study of village sites in North Dakota (1944, pp. 37-39, pi. 17) . The last typological study of this pottery (now superseded by the present statement) is that of Wood (1955) The pottery rims are described here under nine classes, based on decorative elements and on rim form: cord-wrapped rod, bead-impressed, cord-im- pressed, tool-impressed, plain smoothed, plain brushed, pinched plain, and Examples A and B. Each class is sufficiently distinct that it has been possible to determine approximately how many vessels are repre- sented by the sherds. Each probable vessel has been given a number (1 through 183 inclusive) , and se- lected attributes of each are given in Tables 1 through 3. The total vessel count is probably within five per cent of the actual number, the principal source of error THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 25 being vessels which had more than one rim decora- tive treatment. For example, some of the cord- wrapped rod, cord-impressed, and tool-impressed rims bore both oblique and horizontal elements on different parts on the rim. The pottery from Biesterfeldt was once (Wood, 1955) defined in terms of wares and types, as those concepts were defined by Lehmer (1954, p. 41) . The bulk of the sample at that time was assigned to three wares: Ransom Wedge Rim Ware; Stanley Braced Rim Ware (defined at the Dodd site, 39ST30, by Lehmer, 1951, pp. 4-8, pis. 1-3; and Lehmer, 1954, pp. 42-46, pis. 12-14) ; and to Talking Crow Ware (defined from the Talking Crow site, 39BF3, by C. S. Smith, 1951, pp. 34-37, pi. 8) . All of these wares consist of sherd (not vessel) types. No complete or restorable vessels were recovered at Biesterfeldt; the largest segment of a vessel was a miniature cord- impressed jar. With a few minor exceptions (Examples A and B— three vessels) the rim forms at Biesterfeldt grade into Stanley and Talking Crow wares. Although some elements at Biesterfeldt are rare or lacking in Stanley and Talking Crow wares {e.g., cord-wrapped rod and bead-impressed rims, and linear check-stamped bod- ies) , the distinctions between Biesterfeldt and Stanley-Talking Crow are not clear enough to justify separating the Biesterfeldt material into distinct wares. On the other hand, the similarities are suffi- ciently striking that it might be justifiable to assign the Biesterfeldt material to the same wares. Both alternatives, in fact, were recommended by different colleagues. The present descriptions, hopefully, are detailed enough that others can treat the material in any way they see fit. Until larger samples of pottery are available from eastern North Dakota, it seems best to use descriptive classes and eschew named types which have historical connotations which may be misleading. General Characteristics SAMPLE: 255 rim sherds, representing about 183 vessels, and 3,105 body sherds. The sample is sufficiently homogeneous that there is no doubt only one major occupation is represented. PASTE: Method of manufacture: The vessels were probably modeled, judging from the irregular breakage of the sherds and the lack of coil fractures, and were fin- ished with a paddle and anvil. Temper: Fire to coarse grit, ranging from 0.5 to 2 mm in diameter. The quartz, mica, and feldspar com- position of the grit indicates the use of decomposed or calcined granite. Hardness: 2.5 to 4.0 (Mohs' scale). Texture: Fine to medium coarse. Sherd interiors are often crackled, and the majority of them are flaky, with a few sherds that are laminated and tend to split horizontally. Color: Tones range from light buff to mottled gray and black, with the majority of sherds light buff. Interior surfaces are often coated with carbonized matter, and in about half the specimens the exterior is darkened by fire clouds. Strong mentions a "red slip" on the interior of numerous body sherds, but this simply represents differential firing. SURFACE FINISH: Two different techniques were used in the final shaping of vessel walls, both of which con- sisted of malleating or stamping the wall with a paddle. Vessels were vertically or obliquely stamped on the neck and shoulder, and horizontally or in random fashion below the shoulder. During the final shaping of most vessels, the moist walls were malleated using paddles which created a series of parallel grooves. These simple stamped or grooved paddle impressions were sometimes made using large ribs in which parallel lines were cut (Wedel and Hill, 1943), but since no such tools were found at Biesterfeldt, the implements must have been of wood, or the paddle may have been wrapped with thong. The impressions are 1 to 6 mm wide and as much as 30 mm long; they have parallel sides and square ends (Plate lOo, q, r) . Another common paddle used to finish vessels was also grooved, but it was so carved that the type of im- pression that resulted is termed linear check stamping in the Southeast, where this treatment characterizes certain pottery types of the early Woodland Deptford period (Griffin and Sears, 1950) No relationship be- tween Biesterfeldt and the southeastern types is implied by this statement—only that the technique used is the same. These stamps are 1 to 4 mm wide and are 4 to 35 mm long (Plate IO5). Many vessels (or parts of vessels) appear to have been originally stamped with a grooved or checked paddle, but these stamps are now obliterated by smoothing. The surfaces of such sherds are even, but are not polished. Any sherd so smoothed that the original stamping technique is indistinguishable is classed as smoothed. The rim is frequently either vertically or obliquely brushed, with horizontal brushing common on the inner rim. Any rim exterior which retains clear evi- dence of having been brushed is classed as such. (Table 4). No trace of cord-roughened rim or body sherds was noted in the sample. DECORATION: Varies with the individual classes. All techniques were applied to moist paste. 1. Cord-wrapped rod impressions result from the ap- plication of a stick, dowel, or fibrous bundle of small diameter, tightly to loosely wrapped with a fiber cord. Several plasticene impressions clearly reveal the nature of the different cord-wrapped rods used (Plate lOa-c). 26 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY TABLE \.—Selected attributes of cord-wrapped rod-impressed rim sherds NUMBER 15 Vessel No. of sherds Oecorof/on Find spot Rim form Wavy rim Spouf Appendages Neck Outer rim Inner rim // Finger- nail impress. Wec/t impressions Cat. No. Lug Handle Br. Sm. II // w _2J 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 1 d X X X cwr S-/99 House 36 2 1 d X X X cwr S-I6A Cache 1 3 2 i X X S-/33 Cache 15 4 1 ? X X S-123 House II 5 3 J X X X X S-174,182 " 6 1 b X X S-174,182 " 7 1 e X X X cwr S-109 Cache 13 8 1 c X X s-iia " 9 1 1 X X " " 10 1 e X X cwr S-/09 .. II 1 i X X cwr S-(95 " 12 1 d X X S-;09 r- 13 2 e X X S-I6I House 21 14 3 a X X S-163 " 15 4 1 X X X X S-39 Cache 4 16 / J X X S-116,123 House 16 n ( h X X cwr S-141,125 •1 le 5 k X X X X S-I5l,l4t •1 19 / t X X 5-178 House 21 20 ; H X X S-225 Trench 7 21 3 b X X S-195, lie Cache 13 22 4 k X X cwr S-I09 " 23 2 k X X cwr S-I09.118 " 24 2 / X X cwr S-109,195 .. 25 ; m X X S-84 Coche II 26 4 e X X S-36,26 Cache 3 27 ! X X cwr S-50 Cache 7 28 1 X X u » 29 e X X S-133 Coche 15 30 f ? X X S-I4I House 16 31 4 i X X S-141,152 II 32 J X X X X S-I74.209 Houses ((, 36 33 m X X S-235 Trench 7 34 i X X cwr 7993 Unknown 35 J X X X S-225 .. 36 d X X cwr S-26 Cache 3 37 f X X S-192 Cache 1 38 k X X cwr S-84 Cache II 39 k X X S-/33 Cache 15 40 b X X S-(64 Feat. 17 41 b X X S-/92 Cache 1 42 3 i X X cwr S-/09,I95 Coche 13 43 b X X S-229 " 44 e X X X S-/95 " 45 d X X S-229 » 46 J X X S-;39 Coche 16 47 i X X S-/64 Feat 17 48 a X X X cwr .. 49 P X X S-(23 House II 50 i X X X S-(33 Cache 15 51 h X X cwr .. 52 h X X S-209 House 36 53 J X X S-/82 54 c X X X 5-/82,209 1, 55 b X X S-234 Coche 2 56 d X X cwr S-50 Coche 7 57 1 X X S-83 Cache 9 56 t X X X S-/26. (4( House 16 59 b X X S-/25 „ 60 h X X cwr S-141 6/ J X X X S-/26 .. 62 J X X cwr S-II8A Cache (3 63 e X X S-I6A Cache ( 64 e X X X cwr cwr S-26 Coche 3 65 2 1 X X S-t09,ll8 Coche 13 66 2 1 X X S S-II8, 109 „ 67 c X X S-164 Feof. 17 68 P X X X S-123 69 P X X S-174 70 n X X cwr „ „ 71 n X X X S-126 House '6 72 ' X X X S-141, 151 „ 73 e X X cwr S-209 House 36 74 c X X S-2(8 Trenches 6-7 75 J X X u „ 76 1 X X cwr cwr S-26 77 0 X Uncerfoin S-;09 Coche 13 78 9 X S-78 79 0 X S-/99 80 9 X 7993 UnknownTHE BIESTERFELDT SITE 27 2. Cord impressions result from the application of a free strand of Z- or S-twisted, 2-ply vegetal cord (Plate 10g,h). 3. A single rim is mat-impressed, the twine having been Z-twisted. This rim (Vessel 113, Plate 8a and Plate 10/) is classed as cord-impressed in Table 2, since the distinctive nature of the impressions was not noted until after the table was compiled. 4. Bead impressions are the consequence of using a strand of strung glass trade beads in place of the more common free cord (Plate lOd, e). 5. Tool impressions were made with the sharp to blunt tips of pointed objects, or with the end of a reed. 6. The moist clay of the rim of Example A was incised using the tip of some pointed implement. 7. Brushed rims were wiped with a tuft of coarse grass or some similar material, resulting in sharp, parallel scratches with irregular edges. 8. A few rims were finger pinched in such a way that they have a sinuous appearance when viewed from above. All of the above techniques were applied to or basic- ally modified the outer rim. In addition, a few rims bear punctates, cord-wrapped rod, or cord-impressed lines on the inner rim near the lip. Shoulders of a number of vessels are incised with simple to complex abstract geometric patterns (Figure 14, Plate lOi-n). Some of these decorations occur together with multiple cord-impressed or cord-wrapped rod impressions around the vessel neck; some of these lines on the neck appear to have been discontinuous (Plate 7i). Some of the vessels had oval or elongate punctates along the shoulder below the decorated area. One shoulder sherd (Plate 10/) appears to be decorated with cord-impressed lines. Seven sherds have inset glass trade beads, or retain their impressions. The beads, pressed individually into the moist paste, were partly fused when the ves- sels were fired. They are 4 mm in diameter; the few beads remaining (many have fallen out) are of an opaque, white, glassy substance. A single sherd of uncertain provenience (Plate lOp) is dentate-stamped. I am not certain precisely what Strong had in mind when he stated that in some cases "punch stamps or plaited matting (6 sherds) seem to have been used in surface treatment" (1940, p. 374). He might have been referring to the linear check- stamped sherds, although they are well in excess of 6 sherds. The rouletted sherds he mentions, however (1940, p. 374), are the bead-impressed rims. FORM: Overall shape: There are no restored or restorable vessels, but sherds suggest that vessels were globular with wide mouths. Large vessels tend to have rounded shoulders; the smaller ones, angular shoul- ders. Wall thickness, 2 to 13 mm; mean, 5 mm. Lip: Usually rounded, although some lips tend to be pointed (Figure 15). Rim: The most characteristic rim form is one which is beveled outward and down at about a 45° angle, but thickened (or braced) rims are rather common (Fig- ure 15). Rims normally thin somewhat below the lip, and thicken toward the shoulder. Rims are high and are straight to flared, with a constricted neck that usually blends evenly into the shoulder. Shoulder: Generally rounded or flattened, but some smaller vessels have sharply angular shoulders. Base-bottom: Apparently rounded, although one basal fragment (not presently in the collections) is said to have been flat (Strong, 1940, p. 373). APPENDAGES: The 7 strap handles are welded to the ves- sel lip and riveted to the neck or shoulder. They are 20 to 42 mm high and 7 to 40 mm wide; cross sections are oval. Outlines are rectangular to hour-glass in shape. Unless some sherds have been lost, there were not 36 handles as Strong 1940, p. 373) states. There are 18 horizontally-applied triangular lugs, and two lugs set vertically on rims. SPOUTS: Ten vessels have angular, spout-like extrusions on rims, created by pinching out the rim to interrupt the curvature of the orifice. Rim decorative elements often change at this point on the rim (e.g., Plate 8g). COMMENTS: Two elements at Biesterfeldt set this sample apart from other village sites in the Northern Plains, especially from those along the Missouri River: (1) The presence of a large number of linear check- stamped body sherds, similar to rare sherds from sites on the Missouri River near Bismarck; and (2) the prac- tice of both impressing individual glass trade beads into the moist paste, and using strands of beads in a fashion analogous to the use of free cord for decorating rims. COMPONENT CLASSES: Cord-wrapped rod-impressed rims Bead-impressed rims Cord-impressed rims Tool-impressed rims Plain, smoothed rims Plain, brushed rims Pinched, plain rims Example A Example B NOTE: The rim sherds in Plates 7 to 9 (except Plate 7i) are oriented so that the plane of the orifice is at a right angle to the camera lens. Cord-wrapped Rod-impressed Rims PLATE 7 SAMPLE: 115 rim sherds, representing 80 vessels (Table !)• FORM: Fourteen rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class: a-3 f-3 1-6 b-7 h-4 m-2 c-4 i-3 n-2 d-6 j-18 p-3 e-12 k-6 ?-I 28 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 FIGURE 14.—Pottery shoulder patterns, schematically illustrated, a, Cord-wrapped rod impressions on ves sel neck, b. Chevron-filled triangles with horizontally incised pendant triangles, c. Pattern similar to Pawnee examples, d, Complex pattern, e, Alternating triangle. Vessel outlines are hypothetical. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 29 TABLE 2.—Selected attributes of bead- and cord-impressed rim sherds Vessel No. Of sherds Rim form Decoration Cat. No. Find spot Appendages Neck Oute r rim Inner rim Finger- nail imp. Neck impressions Lug Handle Br. Sm. II // w Horiz. // Punct. Tool imp. 2 Horiz. lines 2\ 3 A 1 2 3 Bead 81 2 m X X X X S-I6A Cache 1 82 5 i X X X bead S-IB2,209 House 36 S3 I X X bead S-174 House II 84 J X X 7993 Unknown Cord - impressed 85 1 X s S-141 House 16 86 J X s S-199 House 36 87 e X s S S-50 Cache 7 88 1 X s 1, 1, 89 3 1 X s S-109 Coche 13 90 c X s S-96 Unknown 91 9 X s S-91 Feat. 12 92 i X s S-133 Cache 15 93 b X s s cwr •1 « 94 J X s S-38 Coche 4 95 j X z z S-23 Fea 1 2 96 j X z S-36 Cache 3 97 ■> 7 z S-26 II 98 J X s S-II8 Cache 13 99 e X s S S-109 •• 100 c X X s s u 1, 101 e X X z cwr s-174 House II 102 n X z 8-78 House 23 103 i X z S-235 Unknown 104 j X z No no. « 105 1 X s S-109 Cache 13 106 0 X 2 S-36 Cache 3 107 c X S S-66 House 4 108 J X s s S-174 House II 109 e X s s s-ies House 21 110 e X X s S s-199 House 36 III 5 j X s s S-182, 209 " 112 6 k X X s S-109, 118 Cache 13 113 m X z z S-II6 House 16 114 j X z z S-50 Coche 7 115 k X s S-26 Coche 3 116 k X X s S S-13 Trench 1 117 c X s S-183 House 36 118 d X s S-141 House 16 119 J X X s S-84 Cache II 120 J X s S-182 House 36 121 1 X z S-II8 Cache 13 122 e X z S S-199,222 House 36 123 n X X z X z S-141 House 16 124 J X z " " 125 i X X z Z S-(33 Coche IS 126 k X X z S-/55 House 7 127 j X z S-/52 House 16 128 j X z S-96 Unknown 129 J X z 7993 " 130 j X z 7993 " 131 j X z No no. " 132 j X X z z S-91 Feof 12 133 h X z X S-141 House 16 134 i X z z X S-109 Cache 13 135 j X s s S-II8 " 136 i X X s S-199 House 36 137 P X s S-83 Cache 9 138 1 X z cwr " 139 8 X z z S-96 Unknown30 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 m d e 4 cm. t V '^ * <' m n FIGURE 15.—Pottery rim profiles a-r; rim exteriors are to the right. Rim thickness ranges from 5 to 13 mm; mean, 9 mm, Rim height, 10 to 35 mm; mean, 20 mm. DECORATION: Rim: Parallel vertical, oblique, or horizontal cord- wrapped rod impressions occur on the exterior rim; four rims have oblique cord-wrapped rod impres- sions on the inner rim. Horizontal and oblique im- pressions may alternate on some vessel rims, especially near spouts. Neck: Two to four horizontal lines of cord-wrapped rod impressions occur on the lower rim or neck of seventeen vessels, superimposed over smoothed or brushed surfaces. Six rims are broken along an im- pression so that no more than one line remains. Vertical fingernail impressions occur below the lip of one vessel with a wavy rim. Other: Four vessels had inset glass trade beads in the lip or shoulder. An indeterminable number of ves- sels have incised shoulders. APPENDAGES: One strap handle (now broken ofE) was on a vessel of this type, which extended from the lip to the shoulder. Horizontally-projecting lugs occur on seven vessels, and one rim has a lug set vertically on the rim. SPOUTS: Present on rims of at least six different vessels. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS: Strong, 1940, pi. Sc-d, f. Will and Hecker, 1944, pi. llc-d, f. Wood, 1955, fig. Ic-e. COMMENTS: Members of this class resemble examples of Stanley Braced Rim Ware except for the cord-wrapped rod impressions. Bead-impressed Rims PLATE 8a, b SAMPLE: 9 rim sherds, representing 4 vessels (Table 2). FORM: Three rims of form ;; one rim of form m. Rim thickness ranges from 8 to 12 mm; mean, 10 mm. Rim height, 28 to 30 mm; mean, 30 mm. DECORATION : Rim: Parallel horizontal or oblique bead-impressed lines occur on the outer rim; inner rims are all plain. Horizontal and oblique impressions alternate on one vessel with a spout. Neck: Two rims retain bead-impressed lines on the neck; vertical fingernail impressions occur below the lip of another vessel. Other: Shoulder decorations, if present, are not de- tectable. APPENDAGES: There is one small, horizontally-projecting lug. SPOUT: One vessel (Plate Sb) has a spout, although this is not noted in Table 2. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS: None. COMMENTS: Same as those under Cord-wrapped rod- impressed rims. This rim treatment, as far as I am aware, is not duplicated on rims from any other Plains site. Cord-impressed Rims PLATE 8C-/ SAMPLE: 78 rim sherds, representing 55 vessels (Table 2.) FORM: Fourteen rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class: b-1 h-1 m-1 c-4 i-1 n-2 d-1 j-22 o-l e-7 k-4 p-1 g-1 1-6 ?-2 Rim thickness ranges from 5 to 13 mm; mean, 8 mm. Rim height, 10 to 36 mm; mean, 22 mm. DECORATION : Rim: Parallel horizontal, oblique, or vertical cord- impressed lines occur on the exterior rim. Nine rims are cord-impressed, cord-wrapped rod-impressed, or tool-impressed on the inner rim. Horizontal and oblique impressions alternate on some vessels with lugs or handles. Cord impressions were made with 2-ply cords hav- ing an S- or a Z-twist. THE BIESTERFELDT SITE 31 One vessel, although classed with this group, is impressed with a fabric or mat (Vessel 113, Plate 8fl). Neck: Two to four horizontal lines of S-twisted cords (8 vessels); Z-twisted cords (2) ; or cord-wrapped rod impressions (2) encircle the necks of twelve vessels. Two other rims were broken along an S- and a Z-twist so that no more than one line remains. Vertical fingernail impressions occur below the lip of one vessel. Other: An indeterminable number of vessels had in- cised shoulders. APPENDAGES: Six vessels each had lugs and strap handles. Both appendages are decorated by 3 to 10 horizontal or oblique cord impressions; one is plain. SPOUTS: Only one cord-impressed vessel had a spout. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATIONS: Strong, 1940, pi. 8a, b. Will and Hecker, 1944, pi. 17a, b. Wood, 1955, fig. Za-e, fig. 36. COMMENTS: Same as those under Cord-wrapped rod-im- pressed rims, except that some of these {e.g., Plate 8e) are well within the range of the type Stanley Cord Im- pressed. At least five rim sherds, representing 4 vessels, can be so classified (Wood, 1955, p. 8). Tool-impressed Rims PLATE 9a, b SAMPLE: 11 rim sherds, representing 8 vessels (Table 3). FORM: Five rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class: e-2 k-1 p-1 j-I n-2 ?-l Rim thickness ranges from 5 to 11 mm; mean, 10 mm. Rim height, 15 to 32 mm; mean 25 mm. DECORATION: Rim: Parallel vertical, oblique, or horizontal rows of tool impressions occur on the outer rim. The im- pressions were produced by pointed instruments ap- plied to the moist paste at about a 45° angle (punctates) ; and by pointed tools laid flat against the rim. There is one rim with three horizontal lines of cord-wrapped rod impressions on the inner rim. Neck: One vessel has two horizontal lines of cord- wrapped rod impressions around the neck. APPENDAGES: One punctated and cord-impressed rim (with two horizontal rows of Z-twisted cord) has a tri- angular, horizontal lug; one rim has part of a detached, tool-impressed lug. SPOUT: One rim bears a spout. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATION: Vi^ood, 1955, fig. lb. COMMENTS: Same as those under cord-wrapped rod-im- pressed rims, except that some of them {e.g., Plate 96) are classifiable as Stanley Tool Impressed. Plain, Smoothed Rims PLATE 9C, d SAMPLE: 15 rim sherds, representing 15 vessels (Table 3). FORM: Eight rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class. a-1 e-3 i-1 b-1 f-2 j-1 d-5 h-1 Rim thickness ranges from 5 to 12 mm; mean, 9 mm. Rim height, 12 to 24 mm; mean, 15 mm. DECORATION : Rim: Rims are plain, with smoothed surfaces. Neck: One vessel each is encircled by two lines of Z- and S-twisted 2-ply cord. Other: One rim has two fused, white trade beads set into the rim near part of a lug or handle. APPENDAGES: One rim retains part of a vertical lug; an- other retains part of a lug or handle. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATION: None. COMMENTS: None. Plain, Brushed Rims PLATE 9e-z SAMPLE: 12 rim sherds, representing 10 vessels (Table 3). FORM: Seven rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class. a-3 e-1 0-2 b-1 i-1 p-1 c-1 Rim thickness ranges from 7 to 13 mm; mean, 10 mm. Rim height, 14 to 34 mm; mean, 24 mm. DECORATION: Rims are plain; the lower rim is brushed. One rim is pinched (wavy). APPENDAGES: One rim bears a horizontally-projecting lug. SPOUT: There is a spout behind the lug on one vessel. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATION: Wood, 1955, fig. 3a, c. COMMENTS: Three of these vessels (Nos. 163-165, Plate 9e, f) resemble the type Talking Crow Brushed. Pinched, Plain Rims PLATE 9/ SAMPLE: 12 rim sherds, representing 8 vessels (Table 3). FORM: Six rim forms (Figure 15) are represented in this class. b-1 e-1 1-1 c-3 k-1 o-l Rim thickness ranges from 7 to 12 mm; mean, 10 mm. Rim height, 18 to 22 mm; mean, 19 mm. DECORATION: None, save for the modification of the rim by finger pinching, consisting of alternating indenta- tions on the interior and exterior surfaces, resembling the treatment on Stanley Wavy Rim (Lehmer, 1954, pp. 43-44, pi. 12). APPENDAGES: None. SPOUT: None. PREVIOUS ILLUSTRATION: None. COMMENTS: Many of these rims are within the range of the type Stanley Wavy Rim. 32 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY TABLE 5.—Selected attributes of miscellaneous rim sherds NUMBER 15 Vessel No. of sherds Rim form Decoration Find spot Appendages Neck Outer rim Inner rim Wavy rim Spout Neck impressions Cat. No. Lug Handle Br Sm. II // w 2 Horiz. lines // Punct. 3 Horiz. lines 1 2 9 e Q. e o .2 140 k X X X s-83 Cache 9 141 n X X X X X S-91 Feat. 12 142 P X X cwr S-109 Coche 13 143 e X X cwr X S-174 House II 144 n X X z S-133 Coche 15 145 e X X S-209 House 36 146 4 i X X X " •• 147 ? X X 7993 Unknown « O o E c o ol 148 h X S-23 Feat. 2 149 e X S-50 Cache 7 150 d X Z '• " 151 0 X S-175 House /( 152 d X S-141 House 16 153 d X X " " 154 b X S-133 Cache 15 155 d X S-209 House 36 156 e X S-218 Trenches 6-7 157 j X X 7993 Unknown 158 / X s S-23, 1/6 Fe. 2, H. ;6 159 d X S-84 Cache II 160 e X S-/39 Cache '6 161 f X S-133 Coche 15 162 f X S-/99 House 36 Plain (brushed) 163 i X X X S-50 Coche 7 164 3 a X X S-114,174 House II 165 0 X S-II8 Coche 13 166 a X 7993 Unknown 167 c X S-23A Feat. 2 168 e X S-50 Cache 7 169 0 X S-174 House II 170 b X S-141 House 16 171 0 X X s-iee House 36 172 P X No no Unknown Pinched plain 173 c X X S-23 Feat. 2 174 e X X S-84 Cache If 175 c X X S-/33 Coche 15 176 2 c X X ,1 ., 177 b X X S-141 House 16 178 3 1 X X S-126 ■■ 179 2 0 X X S-209 House 36 180 k X X S-13 Trench / LU 181 ut discrep- ancies between the account of the destruction of a vil- lage by Thompson, and by Alexander Henry the Younger, might be interpreted that the Chippewa at- tacked more than one Cheyenne village on this river. The Cheyenne occupied the Sheyenne River at the same time the site is dated; one of the villages attacked by the Chippewa owned horses, and Biesterfeldt con- tained horse bones. No other earth lodge village is now known on the Sheyenne River; thus, the most economical identification is that it is Cheyenne. Doc- umentation of Biesterfeldt as Cheyenne began with Hayden in 1862, drawing on earlier but unknown sources, and all later writers have accepted this iden- tification. Another protohistoric site on the James River, the Hintz site, dates from the same time period as Biester- feldt (1750-1800) . Hintz is also related in some way to Missouri River horticulturalists; the Hidatsa are suggested. For these reasons, the Sheyenne River and James River valleys in eastern North Dakota may constitute a marginal region of the Northeastern Plains sub-area, occupied by the Post-Contact Coalescent variant pop- ulations of the Coalescent tradition. During the pe- riod 1750-1800 it was occupied by groups related to the Mandan-Hidatsa (Hintz) and Arikara (Biester- feldt) . The region was fully abandoned by horticul- tural peoples by 1800. The Coalescent tradition, as generated by research along the Missouri River, is seen as a response to con- tacts between the Middle Missouri and Central Plains traditions within the Missouri valley. There is no reason to believe Hintz and Biesterfeldt are splinter groups of Post-Contact Coalescent Missouri River populations, so these sites cannot be explained by the same set of cultural confrontations responsible for Post-Contact Coalescent complexes on the Missouri River. Consequently, we hypothesize that sedentary horticultural groups in the Northeastern Plains were subjected to forces and processes analogous to those in the Missouri valley. Parallels between Hintz and the Mandan-Hidatsa, and between Biesterfeldt and the Arikara, show that horticultural peoples in the Sheyenne and James river valleys were participating fully in the development of the Plains Village pattern. Missouri Valley and High Plains Sites The occupation of the Missouri valley between the mouths of the Heart River in North Dakota and the White River in South Dakota by the Cheyenne is documented by accounts of early travelers, as well as by Cheyenne and Dakota traditions. The journals of Clark and Ordway say the Chey- SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 71 enne lived on both banks of the Missouri River near Fort Yates; they mention at least two, if not three, abandoned Cheyenne villages on the west bank of the Missouri near that town. Documentation is offered for several sites or tradi- tional locations along the Missouri River where the Cheyenne reputedly lived: the village on or near Porcupine Creek; Slab Town; Farm School; Four Mile Creek; Dirt Lodge Creek; Grand River; Chey- enne Creek; and a village opposite Farm School. Field work has not suggested, much less confirmed, a Cheyenne origin for any of them. Since there are a very large number of prehistoric sites near Fort Yates, it is not surprising that the traditional locations vis- ited by Grinnell yielded a "Cheyenne" village. No Cheyenne village sites have been located and identified on or near the Missouri River. Per- haps the correct localities may not have been visited, or they may have slumped into the river. In any case, since the Missouri valley near Fort Yates and south is now flooded by the Oahe Reservoir, only three possible villages are still available for checking: a village opposite the mouth of the Heart River, and two villages on the Grand River. Early crossings of the Missouri River by pedestrian bands in the mid-1600s are possible, but the arrival of horse-owning Cheyenne in the 1700s is better docu- mented; some of the latter may not have abandoned the river until about 1840. Cheyenne residence on the river consequently spans at least one century, if not two. Thus, it took the tribe as a whole well over a century to adopt nomadism and abandon village life. Their abandonment of the Missouri valley seems to have been prompted by three factors: (1) movement into an area where they could act as intermediaries between the Mandan-Hidatsa and Arikara trade cen- ters, and sources of goods to the southwest; (2) ex- ploitation of a bison-rich area not claimed either by the Dakota or by the sedentary horticultural tribes; and (3) increasing military pressure by the hostile and equestrian Dakota. A fresh start is therefore necessary to obtain new archeological data on Cheyenne culture history. Three areas offer possibilities: eastern North Dakota and parts of adjoining states should be surveyed and tested; the three remaining village sites on the Missouri and Grand rivers should be looked for and investigated, if possible; and tipi camps west of the Missouri postdating 1800 should be exploited. Literature Cited Baerreis, David A. and John E. Dallman 1961. Archaeological Investigations near Mobridge, South Dakota. Society for American Archaeol- ogy, Archives of Archaeology, Number 14. Barrett, S. A. 1933. Ancient Aztalan. Public Museum of the City of Milwaukee Bulletin, 13. Bass, Wilham M. Ill 1964. The Variation in Physical Types of the Prehis- toric Plains Indians. Plains Anthropologist Memoir, 1. Bowers, Alfred W. 1948. A History of the Mandan and Hidatsa. Ph.D. dissertation. University of Chicago. 1950. Mandan Social and Cerernonial Organization. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1965. Hidatsa Social and Ceremonial Organization. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 194. Bruner, Edward M. 1961. Differential Change in the Culture of the Man- dan from 1250-1953. Editor E. H. Spicer, In Perspectives in American Indian Culture Change. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Caldwell, Warren W. and Richard E. Jensen 1969. The Grand Detour Phase. Publications in Sal- vage Archeology, number 3. Smithsonian Insti- tution River Basin Surveys. Carver, Jonathan 1778. 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New York: F. P. Harper. Deetz, James 1965. The Dynamics of Stylistic Change in Arikara Ceramics. Illinois Studies in Anthropology, number 4. Delanglez, Jean 1943. Franquelin, Mapmaker. Mid-America: An His- torical Review, 25, (1) [new series, volume 14] 29-74 Du Lac, F. M. Perrin 1805. Voyage dans les deux Louisianes, et chez les nations sauvages du Missouri. . . en 1801, 1802, et 1803. Paris: Capelle et Renaud. Dyson, Sir Frank and R. v. d. R. Wooley 1937. Eclipses of the Sun and Moon. Oxford: The Clarendon Press. Ewers, John C. 1954. The Indian Trade of the Upper Missouri River Before Lewis and Clark: An Interpretation. Missouri Historical Society Bulletin, 10 (4): 429- 446. 1955. The Horse in Blackfoot Indian Culture. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 159. Fenenga, Franklin 1953. The Weights of Chipped Stone Points: A Clue to Their Functions. Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, 9 (3) : 309-323. Fenneman, Nevin M. 1938. Physiography of Eastern United States. 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Toronto: The Champlain Society. Van Osdel, A. L. 1899. The Monthly South Dakotan (4 August). Vickers, Chris 1949. Manitoba Pottery Types. Proceedings of the Fifth Plains Conference for Archeology, Uni- versity of Nebraska, Laboratory of Anthropology Notebook number 1, page 85. Wedel, Waldo R. 1955. Archeological Materials from the Vicinity of Mobridge, South Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 157 (Anthropological Pa- per 45) : 69-188. 1961. Prehistoric Man on the Great Plains. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. Wedel, Waldo R. and A. T. Hill 1943. Scored Bone Artifacts of the Central Great Plains. Proceedings of the United States Na- tional Museum, 92 (3141) : 91-100. Wheeler, Richard Page 1963. The Stutsman Focus: An Aboriginal Culture Complex in the Jamestown Reservoir Area, North Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 185, River Basin Surveys Papers, num- ber 30: 171-234. Wilford, Lloyd A. 1941. A Tentative Classification of the Prehistoric Cul- tures of Minnesota. American Antiquity, 6, (3) : 231-249. Will, George F. 1914. The Cheyenne Indians in North Dakota. Pro- ceedings of the Mississippi Valley Historical As- sociation, 7: 67-78, LITERATURE CITED 75 1924. Archaeology of the Missouri Valley. American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, 22 (part 6) : 285-344. Will, George F. and Thad. C. Hecker 1944. Upper Missouri River Valley Aboriginal Culture in North Dakota. North Dakota Historical (Quarterly, 11, numbers 1, 2. Willey, Gordon R. 1966. An Introduction to American Archaeology, vol- ume 1. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice- Hall. Williamson, Rev. T. S. 1872. Who Were the First Men? Minnesota Historical Society Collections, 1: 295-301. Wilson, Gilbert L. 1934. The Hidatsa Earthlodge. Edited by Bella Weitzner. American Museum of Natural History. Anthropological Papers, 33 (part 5): 341-420. Woolworth, Alan R. and W. Raymond Wood 1964. The Demery Site (39C01), Oahe Reservoir Area, South Dakota. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 189, River Basin Surveys Papers, number 34. Wood, W. Raymond 1955. Pottery Types from the Biesterfeldt Site, North Dakota. Plains Anthropologist, number S: 3-12. 1959. Notes on Ponca Ethnohistory, 1785-1804. Ethno- history, 6, (1) : 1-27. 1960. Na n za, the Ponca Fort. Archives of Archaeology, number 3. Society for American Archaeology and the University of Wisconsin Press. 1962. A Stylistic and Historical Analysis of Shoulder Patterns on Plains Indian Pottery. American Antiquity, 28 (1) : 25-40. 1967. An Interpretation of Mandan Culture History. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin, 198, River Basin Surveys Papers, number 39. Wood, W. Raymond and Alan R. Woolworth 1964. The Paul Brave Site (32SI4), Oahe Reservoir Area, North Dakota. Bureau of American Eth- nology Bulletin, 189, River Basin Surveys Pa- pers, number 33. Appendix A FACTOR ANALYSIS OF POTTERY FROM FIVE HOUSES AT BIESTERFELDT Dan M. Healan This analysis was performed to test two of Wood's intuitively derived impressions resulting from his intensive but conventional study of the Biesterfeldt pottery. First, the pottery was understood to have an "internal consistency or homogeneity" (p. 47-48) , which was interpreted to mean that not only was there a single component, but the ceramic tradition was relatively stable—although the presence of Euro- American trade goods meant that the ceramic tradi- tion would soon be heavily modified. Second, there was a very strong impression that the pottery from any given house was about as typical of the site as was the sample from another house. This led us to ask whether extensive excavation at a particular site might not be redundant for certain kinds of specific problems. That is, if Strong had dug only one house at Biesterfeldt, how representative of the other houses might it be? Thus, we set out to see how "typical" each house was, by determining how much variation there was between them in terms of fifty ceramic attributes dealing with surface treatment. To facili- tate the study, a multivariate statistical procedure known as Factor Analysis was used (Rummel, 1967) . Two of the seven houses Strong investigated were not used in this analysis. Both of them (Houses 4 and 7) contained a very small pottery sample; there was, for example, a single rim sherd from each of them, although the body sherd collection was sub- stantially larger. The paucity of specimens in these houses is unusual, and unquestionably sets them apart from the others, but at the same time it precludes their use in a statistical analysis. Table C presents a frequency distribution of the number of attributes possessed by (or found in) each of the remaining five houses. For reasons explained later, a sixth unit of analysis was added (Cache 15). These data served as input, and a Q-technique Factor Analysis was run on an IBM 360 computer, using the BMD-03M Factor Analysis program (Dixon, 1968) . Factor Analysis was used in order to correlate or compare the houses on a series of attributes. For some examples of Q-analysis in anthropology, see Tugby (1965) and Driver and Schuessler (1957) . The level of correlation among the five houses is very high in each case (Table A) . By examining the squared multiple correlation coefficients in the principal diagonal (in this case the correlation be- tween each house and all others combined), one can determine the degree of prediction of the status of the variables in the one house by the status of those in the other four. For example, the squared multiple correlation coefficient for House 21 (.965) indicates that 96.5 per cent of the variation in this house can be predicted from a knowledge of the characteristics of the other four. The unrotated factor matrix (Table B) is included here to demonstrate the uniformity of variation among the five houses. Each factor represents an independent (orthogonal) component of variation among the fifty attributes and evaluates the role of each unit in each component in terms of a numerical value (loading) . Two factors are listed, indicating two independent components of variation for this set of data. Note, however, that Factor I accounts for 97 per cent of all variation among all of the attributes. Moreover, each unit loads highest on Factor 1. Thus, there is only one major dimension of variation, and all houses share substantially in it. Note that Houses 16 and 21 loaded lowest, but that even these loadings are high. 76 APPENDIX 77 House Cache 36 15 TABLE A.—Inter-unit correlation coefficients with multi- ple correlation coefficients in the principal diagonal House 21 House 16 0.988 0.989 House House 23 11 House 21 0. ,965 House 23 0. ,963 0. .996 House 11 0, ,965 0. .993 0, ,994 House 16 0, .883 0, .942 0. .955 0, .969 House 36 0. ,966 0, .996 0, .997 0, .958 Cache 15 0, .939 0, .989 0. .988 0. .977data comprise a very large proportion of the artifact inventories of sites such as this one, but there are many other dimensions of the site which could be investigated, but which are ignored here. There may well be major differences between houses in other classes of artifacts, as in fact is suggested by a visual inspection of the non-ceramic artifacts tabulated by household (Table 5) . Material from the refuse-filled Cache 15 was in- TABLE C—Raw data for factor analysis We may, then, conclude that any house at Biester- feldt is quite representative of the others, although Houses 16 and 21 are least typical. An examination of the orthogonally rotated factors and rotated factor scores (not presented here) reveals that the differ- ences between the houses are largely in attributes 45-47, and 49. Part of the explanation is that House 16 is above the mean in terms of the quantity of data recovered, and House 21 is below the mean. House 16 is interpreted by Wood as possibly being a cere- monial lodge; House 21 is a partly excavated structure in which the sample may not be reliable. Table C shows there are no significant differences between the houses in terms of which attributes are involved in the patterns. That is. Houses 16 and 21 score on essentially the same attributes and in the same order as the other houses—only in a larger and smaller proportion, respectively. Therefore, these are differ- ences of degree, rather than kind of variation. To say that any one house is as typical as any other is, of course, to do so only in terms of ceramic attributes, for only one of the many classes of artifacts from the site was analyzed. It is true that ceramic TABLE ^.—Principal components Factor 2 Unit Factor 1 0.195 0.060 0.026 0.224 0.026 0.084 House 21 House 23 House 11 House 16 House 36 Cache 15 Percent of total variation 0.962 0.994 0.997 0.964 0.999 0.992 97 % CASE House House House House House 21 23 11 16 36 (8 O Rim Embellishment 1. cord-wrapped rod 3 1 7 11 6 b 2. cord-impressed 1 1 2 7 7 J 3. tool-impressed 1 - 2 4. plain, smoothed - 1 2 2 2 5. plain, brushed - - 2 1 1 - 6. plain, pinched - - 2 1 2 7. miscellaneous - - 2 1 1 Rim Form 8. a 1 - 2 - 1 9. b - - 1 3 2 10. c - 2 2 11. d - - 3 2 - 12. e 2 1 2 4 1 13. f 1 1 1 1 14. h 3 1 1 15. i 1 - 2 16. j - 3 5 7 2 17. k 1 i 18. 1 2 - 19. m 1 - 20. n 1 1 2 1 21. o 1 2 - 22. P 3 - - 23. q - 1 24. r 1 - 25. unclassifiable 1 1 26. wavy run 2 2 1 2 Appendages 27. lugs 28. handles 29. spouts Neck Treatment 30. , brushed 1 4 10 5 3 31. , smoothed 3 2 10 13 15 9 Rim Decoration 32, , transverse 1 - - 2 33, , oblique (/) 1 2 3 2 3 V.34, . oblique (\) 3 4 4 2 1 ^35, , 2 lines, horizontal 1 - 3 5 6 2 0 36. . 3 lines, horizontal 4 8 4 1 37, . 4 lines, horizontal 1 1 1 1 1 1 V. 38 . oblique (/) - c 40 . punctate . tool-impressed •^ 41 . horizontal - Neck : [mpressions 42. 1 line - - - 2 2 43. 2 lines - - 3 1 3 44. 3 lines 1 1 1 1 1 1 Body Treatment 45. simple stamped 11 53 138 339 319 83 46. linear check-stamped 9 - 3 5 13 - 47. smoothed 1 6 18 143 46 20 48. decorated (incised) 2 1 1 11 3 49. brushed 2 15 73 25 10 50. unidentifiable 3 7 36 12 1078 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 eluded in the test cases to see how the remains from such a feature compared with the content of houses. The pottery from this pit was found to be well within the range of variation of the excavated houses, and is as "typical" of the site as any of the houses them- selves. This fact reinforces the statement that certain aspects of behavior in the ceramic sub-system of the Biesterfeldt cultural system can occur in more than one context—in houses and in refuse pits. In sum, the multivariate analysis confirmed Wood's earlier but intuitive impression that ceramic data from any one of the five dwellings are generaliz- able to other houses in the village. That is, for certain and specific problems, only a single household in the village might need to be singled out for study. Furthermore, the analysis also demonstrates that the ceramic tradition was internally consistent and sta- bilized, showing none of the strain one might expect in a ceramic tradition being modified by the multiple effects of white contact. Appendix References Dixon, W.J. 1968. Biomedical Computer Programs. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press. Driver, Harold E. and Karl F. Schuessler 1957. Factor Analysis of Ethnographic Data. Amer- ican Anthropologist, 59: 655-633. Rummel, R. J. 1967. Understanding Factor Analysis. Journal of Con- flict Resolution, 11 (4) : 444-479. Tugby. Donald J. 1965. Archaeological Objectives and Statistical Meth- ods: A Frontier in Archaeology. American An- tiquity, 31 (1) : 1-16. PLATES 1-20 79 ^XBSBSSI.'. PLAIE I.—The Biesterfeldt site and ajoining topography (U.S. Department of Agriculture photograph CWN-1AA-I49). 80 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 ^^y^ *tv : Ijf^V^fc? ^(yf £ ..:^M^^l^*:^^.tS PLATE 2.—General views of the site, a. View east during the 1938 excavations. b. Aerial view of the site, looking southwest. PLATES 1-20 81 PLATE 3.—Views of the Sheyenne River River valley and delta, a. The Sheyenne River valley just west of the site; view northeast, b. An earth lodge depression in the east end of the site; view northeast. 82 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 PLATE 4.—The excavated House 16; view is northeast. PLATES 1-20 83 PLATE 5.—Excavated features, a, The excavated House 16; view southwest, b, The fortification ditch cross section, north wall of Trench 1; view northeast. 84 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 PLATE 6.- Excavated features, a, Cache 13, cross sectioned and cored, with stone and bone contents replaced; view south, b, The excavated House 7; view north. PLATES 1-20 85 I 5 cm. PLATE 7.—Cord-wrapped rod-impressed rim sherds. 86 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 PLATE 8.-Rim sherds, a, b, Bead-impressed, c-j, Cord-impressed. PLATES 1-20 87 ( 5 cm. f m \ PLATE 9.—Rim sherds, a, b. Tool-impressed rims, c, d. Plain, smoothed rims, e-i, Plain, brushed rims. j, Pinched, plain rim. k, I, Example A. m. Example B. 88 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 PLATE 10.—a-h, Plasticene impression from rim sherds: a-c. Cord-wrapped rod-impressed; d, e. Bead impressed; /, Mat-impressed; g, h. Cord-impressed, is. Body sherds: i-n. Incised geometric patterns; o, q, r, Simple stamped; p. Dentate-stamped;.?, Linear check stamped. PLATES 1-20 89 5 cm ■i 1 1 L m n PLATE 11.—Chipped stone artifacts, a-e, Arrowpoints. f-m. End scrapers. n-q, Rectangular, chipped stone items. 90 PLATES 1-20 NUMBER 15 PLATE 12.—Miscellaneous chipped stone items. PLATES 1-20 91 5 cm. I . I L. 9 h PLATE 13.—Ground stone tools, a, b, c, e, Hammers, d, f, g, h. Grooved mauls. 92 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY ^BOO-^ I L 5 cm J I I I i PLATE 14.—Ground stone tools and shell artifacts, a, Shaft smoother, b, c, d. Sandstone abraders. e, f, River pebbles, g. Gaming (?) stone, h, i, j. Shell scrapers. PLATES 1-20 93 I I ■ 5 cm. J b-d PLATE 15.— Ground stone objects, a, Elbow catlinite pipe, b, Glacially striated stone. c, d. Milling stones, e. Pitted field stone. 94 PLATES 1-20 NUMBER 15 5 cm I I—I—I c d e PLATE 16.—Bone tools, a. Squash knife, b. Bison humerus abrader. c, d, e, Scapular hoes. PLATES 1-20 95 -- ^^_.- 5 cm. I—I—i—I I I %« ' ■■» PLATE 17.—Bone tools, a. Bone scoop, b. Polisher, c, d, Shaft wrenches. e, f. Slotted knife handles, g, h, i, Serrated fleshers. 96 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 I L 5 cm. J i: PLATE IS.—Small bone artifacts and ornaments, a. Bone bracelet, b, Fox mandible pendant, c. Bevel- tipped tool, d. Bone pendant, e, Shaped bone item. /, Spatulate. g, h, Bone beads, i. Bone whistle. PLATES 1-20 97 5 cm. J 1 1 L ^#i^wliAMI%^^ m PLATE 19.—Miscellaneous trade and intrusive items, a, Glass seed bead, b, Teacup handle, c. Brass-trig- ger guard pendant, d. Brass rod. e, Copper tubular bead. /, Lead strip, g. Brass bangle, h. Brass spring, i, Copper arrowpoint. ;, Brass arrowpoint. k. Shaped brass item. /, m. Brass scraps. 98 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 5 cm. -I i^eo9 \ PLATE 20.—Trade goods of iron or steel and brass, a-e. Iron or steel arrowpoints. /, Iron or steel "ring.' g, h, i. Iron or steel knife blades. ;, Brass knife blade, k. Iron or steel lance tip. Inde X abrader, bison humerus, 37,43 (table), 48 grooved sandstone, 35, 36, 43 (table), 48 Acipenser species, 6 adoption of aliens, 68 aerial photographs, 55, 65 aerial reconnaissance, 66 agate, 34 Alces americana, 6 Algonquin-speakers, 2, 52, 58, 59, 60, 70 aliens, adoption of, 68 American Fur Company, 68 American Museum of Natural History, 2 antler scraper hafts, L-shaped, 50 Aplodinotus grunniens, 6 Arapaho Indians, 2, 52, 58 archeological research, 60, 71 in Dakotas, 69 in Northern Plains, 1 architecture, II, 12, 46, 49, 69 Ardeidae, 6 Arikara Indians, 1, 2, 49, 53, 70 attacked by Dakota, 68 Cheyenne lived near. 62 chief, with Lewis and Clark, 63 earth lodges, 46, 60 pottery, 58, 69 as traders, 67, 68, 71 villages, 45, 46, 48, 50, 58, 67, 68 Arkansas River, Colorado, 2 arrowpoints, chipped stone, 11, 33, 43 (table), 48 metal, 40, 41,43 (table), 49 arrowshaft wrenches, 37, 43 (table), 48 ash (tree), 14 Assiniboin Indians, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58 Astoria, 64 astronomy, 55, 70 Atsina Indians (see Gros Ventre Indians) awls, bone, 49, 50 ax, ground stone, 14 metal, 45, 49 Aztalan site, Wisconsin, 48 Baerreis, David A., and John E. Dallman, cited, 47 bangle, brass, 40 bark, in pits, 24 Barrett, S. A., cited, 48 Bass, William M. Ill, cited, 2 basswood, 14 bastions, lack of, 9, 45 beads, bone, 39, 43 (table), 48 copper, 41, 43 (table) glass (see trade goods) beamers, bone, 42 beans, cultivated, 54 bears, 6, 42 Beaver, 6, 53 Beede, A. McG., 62, 64, 65 Beloit College, 2 bevel-tipped tool, 38, 43 (table) Biddle, Nicholas, 63, 64 Biesterfeld, Louis, vii, viii, 8 Biesterfeldt component, 76 defined, 45-50 Biesterfeldt site. North Dakota, vii, viii, ix, 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7-50, 51, 54-60, 66, 68, 69, 70, 76-78 dating, 45, 46, 49 described, 7-9 fieldwork, vii, viii, ix, 9 identified as Cheyenne, 1, 54, 58, 70 village pattern, 69 bifaces, 34, 43 (table), 48 Big Beaver Creek, North Dakota, 61 (map), 63 Big Hidatsa site, North Dakota, 46 Big Stone Lake, South Dakota-Minnesota, 4, 53 birch bark, 22, 42 bird bone artifacts, 39, 43 (table), 44 (table), 48 birds, 6 Bismarck North Dakota, vii, viii, 24, 27, 46, 50, 59, 61 (map) bison, 6, 44 (table), 52, 68, 71 bone, 10, 18, 22, 24 bone at Biesterfeldt, 42 bone tools, 36, 37. 39, 48, 49 hunting of, 51, 56, 57, 60, 67, 68 hunting of, by Cheyenne, 54, 56, 62, 67 Bison bison, 6, 44 (table) Black Duck focus, 47 Blackfoot Creek, South Dakota, 63 Blackfootlndians, 2, 51,52 Black Hills, South Dakota, 57, 61 (map), 67, 68 Black Mouth soldier society, 45 blankets, trade, 45 Blue Earth River, Minnesota, 53 Bonasa umbellus, 6 99 100 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 bone, worked, 24, 34, 37, 38, 39, 42, 43 (table), 44 (table), 48 49, 50, 69 abrader, bison humerus, 37, 48 awls, 49, 50 beads, 39, 48 beamers, 42 bevel-tipped tool, 38 bow guard, 48 bracelet, 38, 48 fleshers, serrated, 24, 37, 42, 49 hoes, scapula, 48, 49 knife handles, slotted, 34, 37, 48 knife, squash, 37, 48 needle (?), 39, 48 pendants, 38, 48 polisher, 37, 48 quill flatteners, 50 scoops, 37, 48, 49, 50 scraper haft, L-shaped antler, 50 scraper handles, rib-end, 39, 48 spatulate, 38 whisde, 39, 48 wrenches, arrowshaft, 37, 48 bone preservation, 9 Bowers, Alfred W., cited, 1, 46, 59, 66 bow guard, 38, 43 (table), 48 bracelet bone, 38, 43 (table), 48 brass (see trade goods) bream (fish), 6 Bruner, Edward M., cited, 68 Buffalo (see bison) Buffalo Cap ceremony, 2 Bullhead, South Dakota, 61 (map), 66 bundle burial, 18, 42 Bureau of American Ethnology, 2 burials, human, viii, 18, 42 Burial 1 (bundle), 18,42 Burial 2, 18,42 cache pits (see pits) Cadotte, Jean Baptiste, 55, 56 Cadott's House, Minnesota, 55, 56 Caldwell, Warren W., and Richard E. Jensen, cited, 48 camp, tent, vii, viii Car2w species, 44 (table) Carver, Jonathan, cited, 54 Castor canadensis, 6 catfish,6 Catlin, George, cited, 45 catlinite pipes, 36, 48 quarries, 49 Cavalry in the Plains, 56, 57 Cayenne River (see Sheyenne River) celts, ground stone, 50 Central Lowlands province, 4, 5 (map) Central Plains, sub-area, 50 tradition, 59, 60, 70 ceremonial lodge, Biesterfeldt, 11, 46, 77 Mandan, 45, 69 ceremony, Buffalo Cap, 2 Medicine Arrows, 2 Cervus canadensis, 6, 44 (table) Chaa Indians (Cheyenne Indians), 53 Chaiena Indians (see Cheyenne Indians) chert, 34, 36 Cheyenne Creek, South Dakota, 66, 71 Cheyenne Creek village. South Dakota, 66, 61 Cheyenne Hills, South Dakota, 65 Cheyenne Indians, vii, viii, 1, 2, 3, 47, 48, 49, 51-68, 69, 70, 71 attacked by Assiniboin, 57 attacked by Chippewa, 55, 56, 57, 70 attacked by Dakota, 68 bands, 54, 58, 62, 67 bison hunting, 54, 56, 62, 67 east of Sheyenne River, 52, 53, 58, 59 habitat, change of, 2, 51, 52 language, 2, 52 migrations, 2, 51, 70 on Missouri River, 60-66, 70, 71 as sedentary horticulturalists, 1, 2, 51, 58, 62, 67, 68 on Sheyenne River, 53, 54, 58 traditions, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58, 60, 62, 67, 68, 71 west of Missouri River, 2, 51, 56, 60, 62, 67, 68, 71 Cheyenne Plantings (see Farm School village) Cheyenne River, South Dakota, 60 Cheyenne River Indian Agency, South Dakota, 66 chief, Arikara, 63 Chippewa (Sheshepaskut), 55, 56, 57 Chien Creek (see Porcupine Creek) Chien Indians (see Cheyenne Indians) chipped stone tools, 43 (table), 48, 69 arrowpoints, 11, 33, 48 bifaces, 34, 48 drills, 49, 50 end scrapers, 33, 34, 48 at Fire Heart Creek site, 48 flakes, modified, 34, 48 at Hintz site, 48, 59 knives, narrow, 34 knives, plate chalcedony, 50 rectangular chipped stones, 34, 48 Chippewa Indians, 52, 54, 56 attack Cheyennes, 55, 56, 57, 70 dig defensive ditches, 45 trade, 49, 54, 55 Chittenden, Hiram M., and Alfred T. Richardson, cited, 64 Chiyenes (see Cheyenne Indians) chokecherry stones, 14 Clark, Ben, 52 Clark, William, 53, 63, 64, 65, 70 Clark, W. P., cited, 60 Coalescent tradition 47, 50, 59, 70 "coal-like substance," 11 Columbia, Missouri, ix, 1 Columbia University, vii, ix, 2 Comfort, A. J., cited, 52 computer program, 77 Cooper, Paul L., cited, 65, 66 copper (see trade goods) INDEX 101 corn, 42, 54, 55, 62, 65, 67, 68 cornfields, 66 Corning Museum of Glass, 40 correlation coefficient, 76, 77 Coteau des Prairies, viii Coteau du Missouri, 4 Coues, Elliot, cited, 45, 56, 67 Council of Forty-four, 2 coyote, 44 (table) cranes, 6, 39, 44 (table) Cree Indians, 52 culture change, 60, 68, 70 rapidity of Cheyenne, 2, 3, 51, 67 Dakota Indians, 2, 54, 56, 58, 68 attack Cheyenne, 52, 54, 55, 63, 67, 68, 71 attack Chippewa, 55 attack Mandan, 58 earth lodge, 64 obtain horses, 57 on Sheyenne River, 6 traditions, 52, 53, 57, 58, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 70 visit Cheyenne, 65 Dakota Indians, Eastern, 49 Teton, 64 Deapolis site. North Dakota, 68 deer, 42, 44 (table) Deetz, James, cited, 47 Delanglez, Jean, cited, 52 Demery site. South Dakota, 11, 46, 64 depression, cache, 9, 22, 24, 66 house, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, 45, 57, 64, 66 Deptford period pottery, 25 De Smet, Father P. J., 64 de Vargas, Don Diego, 60 Devil's Lake, North Dakota, 6 Diertt, Fred, viii digging tools, 45, 48, 49, 50 direct historical approach, 1 Dirt Lodge Creek, South Dakota, 61 (map), 65, 67 Dirt Lodge Creek village, 61 (map), 65, 67, 71 disk, stone, 36, 48 ditches, fortification (see fortification ditch) Dixon, R. B., 1 Dixon, W. J., cited, 76 Dodd site. South Dakota, 25 dog, 42, 44 (table), 60 Dog Indians (see Cheyenne Indians) Doll Man (Cheyenne man), 62 Dorsey, J. Owen, 53 Drift Prairies province, 4, 5 (map), 69 drills, chipped stone, 49, 50 Driver, Harold E., and Karl F. Schuessler, cited, 76 Duchesneau, Jacques, 52 ducks, 6 Du Lac, Perrin, cited, 62 Dyson, Sir Frank, and R. v. d. R. Wooley, cited, 55 Eagle Feather Creek (see Blackfoot Creek) eagles, 6 earthenware, 40, 49 earth lodge, circular, 11, 57, 58, 60 earthworks, Minnesota, 53 eclipse, lunar, 55 solar, 55, 70 Elder, Robert A., Jr., vii eik, 6, 44 (table) bone tools, 24, 37, 38, 42, 44 (table), 49 Elk River (Suhtai woman), 62 end scrapers, stone, 33, 34-, 43 (table), 48 entrance passage, 11, 12, 14, 18, 46, 69 equestrian nomads, 2, 51 Cheyenne as, 2, 54, 67 Equus callabus, 44 (table) Esox lucius, 6 ethnohistory, 69 Cheyenne, 51-68 ethnology, 1 Euarctos americanus, 6, 44 (table) Evans, John, 55 Ewers, John C, cited, 49, 67 excavations, vii, viii, 9-24 Extended Middle Missouri variant, 48, 49 factor analysis, 76-78 Falls of St. Anthony, Minnesota, 53 Fargo, North Dakota, viii, 4 Farm School village, South Dakota, 61 (map), 64, 65, 66, 71 village on opposite side of river from, 61 (map), 66, 77 faunal remains, 42, 44 (table) features (refuse-littered depressions), 22, 24 Fenenga, Franklin, cited, 48 Fenneman, Nevin M., cited, 4 fields catalog, 24, 33, 34, 37, 38, 40, 41 diary, vii notes, ix, 9, 14, 24, 33, 34, 36 maps, ix field stone, pitted, 36 firearms, 40, 49, 52, 54, 56, 57 Fire Heart Creek site. North Dakota, 11, 46 fireplaces, central, 11, 12, 14, 18, 34 fish, 6, 44 (table), 52 bone artifacts, 38, 43 (table), 48 bones, 24, 39, 42, 49 fisher, 6 Fisher, North Dakota, viii flakes, modified, 34, 43 (table), 48 fleshers, serrated, 24, 37, 42, 49 flood, great, 64, 65 floral remains, 42 Forest City, South Dakota, 66 fort (native earthen enclosure), viii Fort Abraham Lincoln, North Dakota, 62 Fort Crevecoeur, Illinois, 53 fortification ditch, 8, 9, 10, 11, 21 (fig.), 45, 57, 62. 63, 69 built by Hidatsa women, 45 at Porcupine Creek village, 64 fortified sites, 45, 50, 60, 62, 63 Fort Mandan, North Dakota, 53 Fort Manuel Lisa, South Dakota, 63, 65 102 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 Fort Yates, North Dakota, 61 (map), 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 71 Four Mile Creek, North Dakota, 61 (map), 63, 65 Four Mile Creek village, 61 (map), 65, 71 fox. Red, 6 Swift, 38, 44 (table) Franquelin, Jean-Baptiste Louis, 52 Fr.mquelin 1678 map, 52, 70 1688 map, 52 French traders, 52, 67 Freshwater drum, 6 furs, 53 gaming stone, 36, 43 (table), 48 garden crops, 54, 67 gardens, 70 plundered, 68 geese, 6 Ghost dance, 2 glacial features, eastern North Dakota, 4, 50 glacial Lake Agassiz, 4 glacially striated pebbles, 34, 36, 43 (table), 48 glass beads (see trade goods) glass fragment, 40, 49 Goodman, L. R., physiographic map of North Dakota, 5 (map) Graham, Betty Gay, xi Grand River, South Dakota, 61 (map) Arikara villages near, 63, 67, 68 Cheyenne villages on, 61 (map), 65, 66, 67, 71 Grand River village, 61 (map), 65, 66, 67, 71 granite artifacts, 35 granite, as pottery temper, 25 Great Lakes, 4, 52, 58, 70 Great Plains province, 4, 5 (map), 51 Gregorian calendar, 55 Griffin, James B., and William H. Sears, cited, 25 grinding stones, 14, 24 (see also ground stone tools) Grinnell, George Bird, 63, 67, 71 cited, 52, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68 grizzly bears, 6 Gros Ventre (Atsina) Indians, 2, 58 ground stone tools, 14, 24, 35, 36, 43 (table), 69 abraders, sandstone, 35, 36, 48 ax, 14 catlinite items, 36 catlinite pipes, 36, 48 field stone, pitted, 36 gaming (?) stone, 36, 48 glacially striated stones, 36, 48 grinding stones, 14, 24 grooved abrader, 35, 36 grooved mauls, vii, 35, 48 hammerstones, 22, 24, 34, 35 manos, 34, 36 mauls, grooved, vii, 35, 48 milling stones, 34, 36, 48 pebble hammers, 35 pitted field stone, 36 pitted hammers, 35, 48 river pebbles, 36, 48 shaft smoother, 35, 48 spheres, stone, 50 whetstones, 48 Grus americana, 39, 44 (table) Gulf of Mexico, 4, 49 gunflints, 48, 49 aboriginal, 34, 48 gun part, 22, 40, 48, 49 hackberry, 14 Hagen site, Montana, 48 Haines, Francis, cited, 57 hammerstones, 22, 24, 34, 35 hatchets, metal, 37, 38, 48, 49 Hauben, Nathan, vii Hay, John, 54, 55 Hayden, F. W., cited, 57, 58 Headwaters Lake aspect, 47 Healan, Dan, 76 Heart River, North Dakota, 61 (map), 67, 70 Cheyenne village near, 62, 71 Hecker, Thad. C, 24 hematite, 14, 35 Henny, Hugh, 53 Henry, Alexander, 6, 45, 56, 67, 70 heron, 6 Hewes, Gordon W., cited, 65 Hidatsa Indians, vii, 1, 2, 49, 58, 70 arrive on Missouri River, 59 earth lodge, 46, 60 fortification ditches built by women, 45 pottery, 47 as traders, 67, 68, 71 traditions, 59 villages, 59, 60, 62 Hill-Lewis manuscripts, 57 Hintz site. North Dakota, 48, 59, 60, 70 Hiodon tergisus, 6 hoe, scapula, 36, 37, 43 (table), 48, 49 Ho'he Indians (see Assiniboin Indians) horses, 1,55,62,66,67,70,71 bones, 22, 42, 44 (table), 49, 56, 57, 70 obtained by Cheyenne, 57 spread of, 49, 51, 57 horticulture, 1, 2, 51, 52, 58, 59, 60, 62, 67, 68, 70 house depressions, 8, 9, 12, 14, 18, 45, 57, 64, 66 entrances, 11, 12, 14, 18, 46, 69 fireplaces, 11, 12, 14, 18,34 floors, viii, 11,12, 14, 18, 46, 69 no. I, 10 no. 2, 10, 12,21 (map) no. 4, viii, 11, 12, 13 (map), 46, 76 no. 7, 11, 12, 14 (map), 46, 76 no. 11, 11, 12, 14, 15 (map), 46 no. 12, 14 no. 16, viii, 11, 16 (map), 46, 76, 77 no. 19, 9, 24, 45 no. 21, 12, 14, 17 (map), 18,46, 76, 77 no. 23, vii, viii, 12, 18, 19 (map), 21 (map), 42, 43 no. 29, 18 no. 36, 11, 18, 20 (map), 21 (map), 22, 46 INDEX 103 pits, II, 12,46 roof, 11, 12, 14, 16, 18,46 wall trenches, II, 12, 14 walls, II, 12, 14, 18,46 House types, 11, 12, 65 Houses, architecture, 11, 12, 46, 49, 69 Arikara, II burned timbers in, 11, 12, 14, 18, 56 destruction of, 11, 12, 14, 18, 56, 57, 69 four-post, 11, 12, 14, 18, 34, 46, 69 Hidatsa, 11,46 log, 64 long-rectangular, 65 Mandan, 11, 46 placement of, 45, 57 rodent disturbance in, 12, 14 Hudson Bay, 4, 52 Hudson Bay Company, 52, 53 human remains, 18, 42 hunting, bison, 51, 54, 56, 57, 60, 62, 67, 68 Hurt, Wesley R., cited, 11, 46, 47 Hyde, George E., 55 cited, 52, 57 IBM 360 computer, 76 Ictalurus nebulosa, 6 Illinois River, Illinois, 53 Initial Middle Missouri variant, 48 input, computer, 76 Inter-Agency Archeological Salvage Program, 1 intrusive items, 40, 49 Iowa Indians, 53 iron (see trade goods) Irving, Washington, cited, 64 Jablow, Joseph, vii, ix cited, 51,52, 53, 54, 57,68 Jackson, Donald, cited, 63 James River, North Dakota, 4, 69 Sheyenne-James region, 59, 60, 70 Jamestown, North Dakota, 59 jasper, brown, 34 Johnson, Elden, 46, 49 Johnson, Irwin, vii Johnson, Ruth, vii Jolliet, Louis, 52 Julian calendar, 55 Kee tooch sar kar nar Creek (see Little Beaver Creek) Kenel, South Dakota, 61 (map), 63, 64, 65 kettles, trade, 45 Kidder, A. V., cited, 48 Kindred, North Dakota, 55 King 1806 map, 53 Kiowa Indians, 2 knife handles, slotted bone, 34, 37, 43 (table), 48 Knife River, North Dakota, 59 Knife River chalcedony, 33, 34 knife, squash, 37, 43 (table), 48 knives, bone, 34, 37,43 (trade), 48 chipped stone, 34, 50 metal, 41,43 (table), 48, 49, 57 plate chalcedony, 50 Krause, Richard A., ix cited, 48 Kroeber, A. L., cited, 51, 52, 54 Kulm, North Dakota, 61 (map), 62 Cheyenne village near, 62 "lacaishe" (fish), 6 Lac du Diable (Devil's Lake), North Dakota, 6 Lac qui Parle, Minnesota, 53 Lake Agassiz, North Dakota-Minnesota, 4, 5 Lake Traverse, South Dakota-Minnesota, 4, 51, 53 Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba, 4 language, Cheyenne, 52 languages, Algonquin, 2, 52, 58, 59, 60, 70 Siouan, 2, 53 La Salle, Ren^ Robert Cavelier, Sieur de, 53 La Verendrye, Pierre Gaultier de Varennes, Sieur de, 57 lead (see trade goods) Le Beau S-rim, 33 Lehmer, Donald J., ix, 8, 47 cited, 25, 31,46, 48, 49, 50, 59 Lepomis species, 6 Le Seuer, Pierre Charles, 53 "Le Sucerie" (see Sheshepaskut) Lewis Meriwether, and William Clark, 55, 58, 60, 63, 64, 67, 68 cited, 53 1815, map 53 Lewis, T. H., 7, 57 1890 map, 7 (map), 57 Libby, Orin G., viii, 9, 18,45, 57 Libby-Stout 1908 map, vii, 7 (map), 8 (map), 9, 18, 22, 45, 46, 57, 58 linguistics, 1, 2 Lisbon, North Dakota, vii, viii, 4 Little Beaver Creek, North Dakota, 63 lodges, earth, 11, 12, 46, 57, 58, 60, 69 Arikara, 11, 46 ceremonial, 11, 45, 46, 69, 77 circular, 11,57,60,69 construction, 46 Hidatsa, 12, 46 Mandan, 11,46,60 Logan Museum (Beloit College), 2 Loup River, Nebraska, 66 Lower Hidatsa site, 32ME10, North Dakota, 59 Lowie, Robert H., cited, 45 Lowry, Woodbury, cited, 52 Lutra canadensis, 6 McKay, James, 55 maize (see corn) Mandan Indians, vii, 1, 2, 49, 70 adopt aliens, 68 ceremonial lodges, 45, 69 Cheyenne live with, 62 earth lodges, 11, 46, 60 pottery, 47 104 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 astraders, 67, 68, 71 traditions, 58, 59 village plaza, 45 villages, 62, 68 war parties, 58, 59 Manitoba, 4 manos, 34, 36 Maple Creek, North Dakota, 51, 62 maps, cited Franquelin 1678,52,70 Franquelin 1688,52 King 1806, 53 Lewis 1890, 7 (map), 57 Lewis and Clark 1815,53 Libby-Stout 1908, vii, 7 (map), 8 (map), 8. 18, 22, 45, 46, 57,58 maps, field, ix Margry, Pierre, cited, 53 marshes, 4, 6, 52 Martes pennanti, 6 Ma tou ten'tas (Oto?) Indians Mattison, Ray, ix mauls, grooved stone, vii, 35, 43 (table), 48 Meleen, Elmer E., cited, 49 men, activities of, 48 "menstrual hut" (House 7), 12 metal tools axes, 45 hatchets, 37, 38, 48 knives, 41, 43 (table), 48, 49, 57 (see also trade goods) Middle Missouri, sub-area, 50 tradition, 59, 60, 70 Mille Lacs, Minnesota, 52 Milligan, Edward A., vii milling stones, 34, 36, 48 Milnor, North Dakota, viii Minnesota, 4, 32, 46, 69 Cheyenne abandon, 58, 59, 62, 67, 70 Cheyenne residence in, 51, 52, 53, 54, 60, 70 horses in, 49, 57 Minnesota Historical Society, 57 Minnesota River, Minnesota, 4 Cheyenne residence on, 2, 52, 53, 54, 62, 70 Mississippi River, 2, 52, 53, 70 Missouri River, 4, 5 (map), 6, 50, 52, 53, 54, 61 (map) Cheyenne live along, 55, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 71 Cheyenne west of, 2, 51, 58, 67 pottery in sites along, 32, 33, 46, 47, 69 tribes along, 49, 58, 59, 60, 62, 69, 70, 71 village sites along, 9, 27, 45, 46, 47, 48, 57, 58, 59; 66 Mitchell, Arnold, vii, viii Mitchell, Samuel Alfred, cited, 55 Mobridge, South Dakota, 47, 61 (map) mollusks, freshwater, vii, 18, 24, 44 (table) mollusk scrapers, 24, 39, 42, 43 (table), 44 (table), 49 Mooney, James, 52 cited, 2, 60 mooneye herring, 6 moose, 6 Moreau River, South Dakota, 62 mounds, viii, 62, 65 Mulloy, William T., cited, 48 multivariate analysis, 76, 78 Mythology, 52 Ndnza, Ponca Fort site, Nebraska, 50 Nasatir, A. P., cited, 67 National Park Service, 1 Nebraska, 50, 66 archeology of, 1 needle (?), bone, 39, 48 Neill, Edward Duffield, cited, 52 Nelson River, Manitoba, 4 New Mexican Archives, 60 New Mexico, 48, 60 New York City, ix nomads, 68 Cheyenne, as equestrian, 2, 54, 67 equestrian, 2, 51, 52 pedestrian, 67, 71 North Dakota, 33, 46, 50, 58, 59, 61 (map), 62, 63, 64, 67, 70 Cheyenne in eastern, 51, 53, 54, 60, 67 horses in, 49, 57 river systems in, 4 Mandan war parties in eastern, 58, 59 North Dakota Historical Society (see State Historical Society of North Dakota) Northeastern Plains sub-area, 50, 59, 60, 69, 70 Northern Lights, viii Northwest Company, 55 Oahe Reservoir, 61 (map), 64, 66, 71 oak, 6, 14, 56 Odocoileus species, 44 (table) Office of Anthropology, Smithsonian Institution, ix Ojibwa (Saulteur) Indians (see Chippewa Indians) Old Northwest, 55, 59 Olor columbianus, 6 Omaha Dance, 2 Omaha Indians, 53 On-a-Slant site. North Dakota, 46 One Mile Creek, North Dakota, 65 Ono'ni ohe River (see Grand River) Oppolzer, Theodor, Ritter von, cited, 55 Ontario, 4 Ordway, John, 63, 64, 65, 70 Osborne, Martin, vii Osgood, Ernest Staples, cited, 63 Oto Indians, 53 otter, 6 Pacific Coast, 49 paddles, pottery, 25 Painted Woods focus, 59 Painted Woods Lake, North Dakota, 58 palisade line, 9, 10, 45, 69 Palisade trenches, 8 (map), 9 (map), 10, II no. 1, vii, 10, 21 (map) no. 2, 9, 10 INDEX 105 no. 3, 9, 10, II no. 4, 9, 10, 11 no. 5, 9, 10, 21 (map) no. 6, 11 no. 7, 11 Park River, North Dakota, 6, 56 Paul Brave site. North Dakota, 65 Paulson, Norman, ix Pawnee Indians, 2, 53 pottery, 28, 47 village, 66 pebble hammerstones, 35, 43 (table) zoomorphic, 36, 48 pebbles, river, 36, 48 Pecos site. New Mexico, 48 pedestrian nomads, 67, 71 pendant, brass trigger guard, 22, 40, 43 (table), 48, 49 fox mandible, 38, 43 (table), 48 scapula, 38, 43 (table) Peoria, Illinois, 53 Perrot, Paul, 40 Peyote rite, 2 Phillips Ranch site. South Dakota, 46 photographs, aerial, 55, 65 field, ix, 36 physical anthropology, 2 physiographic diagram. North Dakota, 5 (map) Piaheto Creek (see Blackfoot Creek) Pierre, South Dakota, 48, 49, 50 pigments, red, 14, 35 white, 36, 43 (table), 48 pike (fish), 6 Pilling, Arnold R., 40 pipes, catlinite, 36, 43 (table), 48 pits, cache, 11, 18, 22, 23 (fig.), 24, 57, 66, 69 no. 1, vii, 22, 23 (fig.), 40 no. 3, 22, 23 (fig.) no.4, 22, 23 (fig.) no. 5, 22 no. 6, 22 no. 7, 22, 23 (fig.) no. 9, 22 no. 11,23 (fig.), 24 no. 13,22,23 (fig.), 24, 42 no. 15, 22, 23 (fig.), 42, 76, 77 no. 18, 18, 20, (fig.), 21 (fig.), 22 no. 20, 22, 23 (fig.) Plains Conferences, ix Plains Cree Indians, 51, 58 Plains Ojibwa Indians, 51, 58 Plains, peopling of, 1 Plains Village pattern, 49, 60, 70 Plains Village tradition, 49 plaza, village Biesterfeldt, 9, 11,45,46, 69 Mandan, 45 plum, 6, 14 polisher, bone, 37, 43 (table), 48 Ponca Creek, Nebraska, 50 Ponca Fort site {Nd"za), Nebraska, 50 Ponca Indians, 50 Porcupine Creek, North Dakota, 60, 61 (map), 62, 63, 64, 65 Porcupine Creek village, 61 (map), 63, 64, 71 Post-Contact Coalescent variant, 47, 50, 59, 60, 70 postholes, viii, 9, 10 braced, 11,12, 14, 18,34,42 center, viii, 11, 12, 14, 18,46 wall (leaner), viii, 11, 12, 14, 18, 46, 69 palisade, 9, 10, 45 pottery, vii, 24-33, 76-78, 77 (table) analysis, conventional, viii, 24, 25, 47 analysis, factor, 47, 76-78 attributes, 76, 77 homogeneity of, 25, 76-78 rim Example A, 24, 25, 27 rim Example B, 24, 25 pottery traits bead-impressed necks, 30 bead-impressed rims, 24, 25, 27, 30, 46 body sherds, smoothed, 25 dentate-stamped, 27 linear check-stamped, 25, 27, 46, 69 simple-stamped, 25, 32 brushing, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31 cord-impressed necks, 31 cord-impressed rims, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33 cord-impressed shoulder sherd, 27 cord roughening, 25, 47 cord, vegetal, S-twisted, 27, 30, 31, 33 Z-twisted, 27, 30, 31 cord-wrapped rod impressions, necks, 30, 31 rims,24, 25,27, 30, 31,46, 69 grit temper, vii, 25, 34 incised rims, 27, 32 incised shoulders, 27, 30, 31, 47 lugs, 27, 30, 31 manufacture, 25, 47 mat impressions, 27, 31 miniature vessel, 25 necks, bead-impressed, 30 cord-impressed, 31 cord-wrapped rod-impressed, 30, 31 punctates, fingernail, 30, 31 tool-impressed, 27 "red slip," 25 rim, form, 27, 28 (fig.), 30, 31, 69 inner rim decoration, 27, 30, 31 outer rim decoration, 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 47, 69 rims, braced, 27 collared, 32 cord-impressed, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 33 cord-wrapped rod-impressed, 24, 25, 27, 30, 31, 46. 69 flared, 27, 30,31 incised, 27, 32 mat-impressed, 27, 31 pinched,24,27, 31 plain, 24, 31 S-shaped, 33 smoothed. 24, 25, 32, 33 tool-impressed, 24, 25, 27 106 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 wavy, 30, 31 rouletting, 27 shoulder patterns, 27, 28 (fig.), 47, 69 shoulders, angular, 27 incised, 27, 30, 31,47 cord-impressed, 27 spouts, 27, 30, 31 stamping, dentate, 17 linear check, 25, 27, 46, 69 simple, 25, 32 strap handles, 27, 30,31 surface finish, 25, 27, 32, 46, 47, 69, 76 temper, decomposed granite, 25, 34 vessel form, 27, 69 Woodland, 25, 47, 58, 64 pottery types, viii, 25 Stanley Cord Impressed rim, 31 Stanley Tool Impressed rim, 31 Stanley Wavy Rim rim, 31 Talking Crow Brushed rim, 31 Le Beau S-rim, 33 pottery typology, 24, 25 pottery wares, 25 Ramson Wedge-Rim ware, 25 Stanley Braced Rim ware, 25, 30, 47 Talking Crow ware, 25, 47 principal components, 77 principal diagonal, 76, 77 prisoners, Chippewa, 56 Mandan, 68 Procyon lotor, 6, 44 (table) projectile points (see arrowpoints) Q-technique, 76 Quaife, Mile M., cited, 55, 63 quartz, 34 "quill flatteners," 50 raccoon, 6, 44 (table) Rainey River House, 56 Ransom County, North Dakota, 4 Ransom Wedge-Rim ware, 25 Rectangular chipped stone items, 34, 43 (table), 48 Red deer (see elk) Red fox, 6 Red Hail (Dakota man), 65 Red River, 2, 5 (map), 45, 46, 53, 57, 58, 63, 69 fauna of, 6 Henry's journals on, 56 sites east of, 46, 49 Thompson's journals on, 55 valley described, 4 Red River valley province, 4, 5 (map) "Ree" River (see Grand River) refuse disposal, 9, 10, 22, 24 refuse-littered depressions, 22, 24 Reid, Russell, vii, viii reservation life, 51 Ricaras Indians {see Arikara Indians) Riggs, Stephen Return, 54, 66 cited, 53, 57 River Basin Surveys, 1 Riviere aux Maries, Manitoba, 45 rodents, 4, 12, 14 roof supports, 11, 12, 14, 18,34,46 roofing technique, 46 Rosa site. South Dakota, 46 Roseau River, Manitoba, 45 rose hips (thorn apple), 14 Rucker, Marc D., ix, 56 ruffled grouse, 6 Rummel, R. J., cited, 76 Sacred Arrow cult, Cheyenne ceremony, 2 St. Peter's River, Minnesota, 56 Sakakawea site, 32ME11, North Dakota, 59 salvage archeology, demands of, 1 Sameth, Sigmund, vii Santa Fe, New Mexico, 60 Saskatchewan River, Manitoba and Saskatchewan, 58 Saulteur (Ojibwa) Indians (see Chippewa Indians) Scheans, Daniel J., cited, 64 Schian River (see Sheyenne River) scoop, bone, 37, 43 (table), 48, 49 horn core-frontal bone, 50 split metapodial, 49 scraper haft, L-shaped antler, 50 scraper handles, rib-end, 39, 48 scrapers, chipped stone, 33, 34, 43 (table), 48 shell, 11, 22, 24, 39, 42, 43 (table), 44 (table), 49 seeds, 14, 42 shaft smoother, 35, 43 (table), 48 Sha hi en a wo ju (see Cheyenne Creek village) Sha hi'ye-na (see Cheyenne Indians) Shar ha (see Cheyenne Indians) shell beads and ornaments, 50 shell scrapers, 11, 22, 24, 39,42, 43 (table), 44 (table), 49 shells, freshwater, vii, 18, 22, 24, 44 (table) Sheshepaskut ("Sugar" or Le Sucerie), 55, 56, 57 Sheyenne-Cheyenne site (see Biesterfeldt site) Sheyenne-James region, 59, 60, 70 Sheyenne River, North Dakota, vii, 4, 5 (map), 6, 52, 53, 59, 61 (map) Cheyenne residence on, 2, 51, 53 Cheyenne village on, 49, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 60, 62; 64, 65, 70 Cheyenne village on, destroyed, 49, 55, 56, 57, 58, 70 Henry journals on, 56 Sheyenne-James region, 59, 70 solar eclipse on, 55, 70 Thompson's journals on, 55 Sheyenne River delta, 5 Shian (see Cheyenne Indians) Shyennes (see Cheyenne Indians) Sibley, Henry H., Expedition silicified sediment, 34 siltstone hammerstones, 35 Siou (see Dakota Indians) Siouan-speakers, 2, 53 INDEX 107 Sioux (see Dakota Indians) "Sioux of the Prairies (Plains), 54, 56 (see also Cheyenne Indians) site 32ME10 (see Lower Hidatsa site) 32ME11 (see Sakakawea site) 32SI6, 64 32SI22. 65 32SI101,65 32SI202, 65 39P09, 66 39P011,66 Sitting Bull, 65, 66 Slab Town village. North Dakota, 61 (map), 64, 71 Small Point tradition, 48 smallpox, 58, 64, 68 Smith, Carlyle S., vii, viii, ix, 40, 55 cited, 25 Smithsonian Institution, ix, 1 soil pH, 9 Solecki, Ralph, ix South Dakota, 46, 48, 50, 53, 61 (map), 62 Cheyenne villages in, 61 (map), 63, 64, 65 South Dakota Historical Society, 2 spatulate, bone, 38, 43 (table) Sperry, James E., ix, 65 spheres, ground stone, 50 Spinden, Herbert J., 1 Spiry-Eklo site. South Dakota, 47 Spotted Bear site. South Dakota, 11, 46, 47 spring, brass, 40, 43 (table) spring, active, at site, 9, 57 squash, 54 Stanley Braced Rim ware, 25, 30 Stanley Cord Impressed rim, 31 Stanley Tool Impressed rim, 31 Stanley Wavy rim, 31 State Historical Society of North Dakota, vii, viii, ix, 1, 24, 57. 64,65 steel (see iron trade goods) Steinbrueck, Emil R., 65 Stizostedion vitreum, 6 stones, abundance of in houses, 11 Stout, A. B., 8, 18, 45, 58 Libby-Stout 1908 map, vii, 7 (map), 8 (map), 9, 18, 22, 45, 46, 57, 58 Strong, William D., vii, viii, ix, 7, 10, 11, 12, 18, 25, 33, 34, 35, 37,38,40,41,45,46,59,76 cited, 1, 2, 8, 9, 24, 27, 30, 31, 32, 36, 39, 42, 44, 47, 48, 54, 56, 58, 63, 65, 67 Sturgeon,6 Stutsman focus, 59, 69 sub-areas, geographical, 50 "Sugar" (Le Sucerie) (see Sheshepaskut) Suhtai Indians. 2. 58, 62. 63 northeastern origin, 58 Sully, General Alfred, 62 Sun Dance, 2 sunfish, 6 swamps, 4, 6, 52 Swan Creek site. South Dakota, 46, 47 swans, 6 Swanton, John R., cited, 56, 58 Swift fox, 38, 44 (table) Tabeau, Pierre Antoine, cited, 67, 68 Talking Crow Brushed rim, 31 Talking Crow site. South Dakota, 25 Talking Crow ware, 25 taxonomy, Biesterfeldt, 49, 50 Middle Missouri sub-area, 60 Taylor, Joseph Henry, cited, 58, 59 teacup handle, 40, 43 (table), 49 terraces, Sheyenne River, 4 Thompson, David, 55, 56, 57, 70 thorn apple (rose hips), 14 Thwaites, Reuben Gold, cited, 63, 68 tipi ring sites, 68, 71 tipis, 2, 66, 67 tobacco, 62 trade,48, 49, 51,62, 67, 71 network, 67, 68 relations, 60, 67 with Chippewa, 54 trade goods, 22, 24, 27, 31, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 43 (table), 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 69, 70, 76 brass, arrowpoint, 40 bangle, 40 knife blades, 41,48,49 rod, 40, 49 scrap, 40, 41 shaped, 40 spring, 40 trigger guard pendant, 22, 40, 48, 49 copper arrowpoint, 40 bead, 41 scrap, 40, 41 earthenware teacup handle, 40, 49 glass beads, 39, 40, 49, 69 inset in pottery, 24, 27, 31, 39, 46, 47, 49, 69 glass fragment, 40, 49 iron arrowpoints, 41 knifeblades, 41,48, 49 lance tip, 41 ring, 41 scrap, 41 lead strip, 41, 49 traders, European, 49, 51, 52, 67 traditions (see Cheyenne and Dakota Indians) travel, on foot, 57. 60. 62 travois, 60 Truteau, Jean Baptiste. 067 tsis tsis tas (Cheyenne Indians), 53 Tucker, Sara Jones, cited. 52. 53 Tugby. Donald J., cited, 76 turtle, 44 (table) Twitchell, Ralph E., cited, 60 Tyrrell, J. B., cited, 56 United States National Museum, ix University of Missouri, ix, 1 108 SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO ANTHROPOLOGY NUMBER 15 University of Wisconsin, 58 Ursus horribilis, 6 Ute Indians, 2 Valley City, North Dakota, 55 Van Osdel, A. L., cited, 57 vegetables, 55 Vickers, Chris, cited, 47 villages, Arikara, 46, 47, 48, 50, 60, 63, 67 attacks on, 55, 56, 57, 68, 70 Cheyenne, 1, 3, 49, 53, 58, 59, 60, 61 (map), 62, 63, 64', 65, 66,67,68,69,70, 71 density, 9 entrance to, 7 (map), 57 fortified, 45, 50, 60, 62, 63 Hidatsa, 11,45,46,47 Mandan, 11,45,46,47 Pawnee, 66 plaza, 9, 11,45,46,69 Ponca, 50 Virginia, 63 Vulpes fulva, 6 Vulpes velox, 38, 44 (table) walleye perch, 6 war parties, Chippewa, 55, 56 Mandan, 58, 59 War ra conne (see Big Beaver Creek) Wedel, Waldo R., ix cited, 48, 50 Wedel, Waldo R., and A. T. Hill, cited, 25 We hee skeu (Cheyenne Indians), 63 Weiant, Clarence W., vii Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research, Inc., ix Wheeler, Richard Page, cited, 48, 59 whetstones, 48 whistle, bone, 39, 43 (table), 48 White River, South Dakota, 62, 67, 70 Whitestone Hills, North Dakota, 62 Whooping crane, 39, 44 (table) wild rice, 6 Wild Rice River, Minnesota, 56 Wilford, Lloyd A., cited, 47 Will, George F., vii, viii, 1, 14 24 cited, 9, 24, 45, 52, 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 60, 62, 64, 65, 68 Will, George F., and Thad. C. Hecker, cited, 30, 31, 58, 64, 66 Willey, Gordon R., cited, 49 Williamson, Rev. T. S., 54 cited, 52, 53 willow, 6 Wilson, Gilbert L., cited, 11, 12, 46 Wilson, 6 Wilson, Gilbert L., cited, 11, 12, 46 Wilson, Kenneth, 40 Wisconsin, 48, 52, 70 Wisconsin River, Wisconsin, 52 Wissler, Clark, 1 wolves, abundance of, 6 women, activities of, 48 wood dust, 14, 18 Wood, W. Raymond, viii, 64, 65, 76, 77, 78 cited, 24, 25, 30, 31, 33, 47, 49, 50, 59-, 66 Wood, W. Raymond, and Alan R. Woolworth, cited, 49, 65 Woodbury, Richard B., ix Woodland pottery, 25, 47, 58, 64 Woolworth, Alan R., ix, 11, 57, 64, 65 Woolworth, Alan R., and W. Raymond Wood, cited, 46, 64 wrenches, arrowshaft, 37, 43 (table), 48 Yellow Medicine River, Minnesota, 51, 53 zoomorphic pebble, 36, 48 •i^ U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1971 0-399 -749