History of Letter Post Communication Between the United States and Europe, 1845—1875 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY NUMBER 6 History of Letter Post Communication Between the United States and Europe, 1845-1875 George E. Hargest SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION PRESS City of Washington 1971 'U;i i , v> . SERIAL PUBLICATIONS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION The emphasis upon publications as a means of diffusing knowledge was expressed by the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. In his formal plan for the Insti- tution, Joseph Henry articulated a program that included the following statement: "It is proposed to publish a series of reports, giving an account of the new discoveries in science, and of the changes made from year to year in all branches of knowledge not strictly professional." This keynote of basic research has been adhered to over the years in the issuance of thousands of titles in serial publications under the Smithsonian imprint, commencing with Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge in 1848 and con- tinuing with the following active series: Smithsonian Annals of Flight Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics Smithsonian Contributions to Botany Smithsonian Contributions to the Earth Sciences Smithsonian Contributions to Paleobiology Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology Smithsonian Studies in History and Technology In these series, the Institution publishes original articles and monographs dealing with the research and collections of its several museums and offices and of professional colleagues at other institutions of learning. These papers report newly acquired facts, synoptic interpretations of data, or original theory in specialized fields. Each publica- tion is distributed by mailing lists to libraries, laboratories, institutes, and interested specialists throughout the world. Individual copies may be obtained from the Smith- sonian Institution Press as long as stocks are available. S. DILLON RIPLEY Secretary Smithsonian Institution Copyright © 1971 by George E. Hargest All rights reserved UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. 1971 For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C. 20402 - Price $4.25 Preface It is the purpose of this book not only to describe the postal services between the United States and Europe, but also to explain their development. The period con- sidered begins with the subsidization of United States steam mail-packets in 1845, and ends on 1 January 1876, when France, the last of nineteen European countries to do so, placed in force the provisions of the treaty of Berne and became an active member of the General Postal Union. In order to keep the size of this work within reasonable bounds, it was necessary that its scope be in some way limited. Rather than narrow the limits of the period covered, it was decided to consider only letter post communication. Interesting as are the arrangements for the exchange of newspapers, printed circulars, and registered mail, they are not included in this work. A table of United States postal rates to foreign countries is presented in the appen- dix. While this book confines itself to letter post communication between the United States and Europe, the scope of the appendix is broadened to include rates to all parts of the world. Since information regarding the broadened scope was available, it was felt that it would be of value to collectors to include it. An attempt has been made in the book to retain the language of the sources from which information has been drawn. This is particularly true in regard to the names of countries and places of which mention is made. Many of the names are subject to a variety of spellings, especially those of the Turkish towns. Places in the appendix follow the spellings given in the tables of postages to foreign countries presented in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, and the names are sometimes misspelled in that source. The difficulties the Americans had when dealing with foreign languages are occasionally brought to the fore. For example, the port of Riviere-du-Loup on the St. Lawrence River is spelled, in the English version of the United States-French postal convention of 1861, as the Americans pronounced it, "River du Loup." While I have largely drawn from primary sources for information relating to mail arrangements, the history of the steam-packet lines has been authoritatively presented in seveal works, and I have, therefore, relied upon these secondary sources for this information. Individual ship sailing and arrival dates have been taken from original sources. It must be recognized, however, that much original source material that should be available no longer exists. The letterbooks of the Post Office Department in the National Archives contain copies of outgoing letters only. Nine of these letterbooks were examined in 1963, and not one letter relating to the foreign-mail service was found. Fortunately, many matters were referred by the Post Office Department to the Department of State, and correspondence on these matters exists. Congress occasion- ally requested that correspondence relating to certain matters be published, and post- masters general sometimes published correspondence to Congress in support of their requests for legislation. These letters are found in the House and Senate Executive Documents. While many changes in the original postal conventions were made by signing additional articles, changes were also effected through correspondence between SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY the post offices of the countries concerned. Postmasters general sometimes made reference to. these changes in their annual reports, but some that are known to have taken place cannot be supported by documentary evidence. The cover is to the postal historian what the artifact is to the archeologist, and in the absence of other evidence, the cover has been relied upon to supply the missing information. Postal markings are considered only in relation to the function they performed. No attempt is made to present various types of markings performing the same function. This subject has been definitively covered for Boston in Boston Postal Markings to 1890, by Maurice C. Blake and Wilbur W. Davis, and, for the United States in United States Postal Markings, 1851-1861, by Tracy W. Simpson. Some postal markings, however, domestic or foreign, that are unique to a particular mail service, are illustrated and described. Without the assistance, support, and encouragement of others, this book could not have been written. While it would be impossible to mention everyone who has in some way participated in this endeavor, I hope that I will be forgiven for acknowledging my special thanks to a few of them. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Clifford K. Shipton, Director Emeritus, and to Mr. Marcus A. McCorison, Director of the Ameri- can Antiquarian Society in Worcester, Massachusetts, for granting me privilege of the library stacks, and to Miss Mary E. Brown, staff librarian, for her invaluable assistance. I wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Tilton M. Barron, librarian of Clark University, not only for his ready assistance, but also for his willingness to secure certain works on library loan. I also wish to acknowledge the assistance of Miss Geneva Chancey, librarian of the Post Office Department library in Washington, D.C, and of Dr. Arthur Hecht of the National Archives. I am deeply indebted to Mr. Carl H. Scheele, Associate Curator in Charge, Division of Postal History, and Chairman, Department of Applied Arts, at the Smithsonian Institution, for the privilege he granted me of examining the foreign-mail covers in the Smithsonian collection, and for the use of the Smithsonian's extensive philatelic library. My sincere thanks are extended to Mr. Melvin W. Schuh of Worcester, Massa- chusetts, not only for his extensive loan of covers for illustration, but also for his kind and patient counsel. I also wish to express my gratitude to Mr. Lester L. Downing of Concord, Massachusetts, for his many generosities in loaning works from his private library and covers for illustration, and for his information in regard to the sailings of the Cunard line. I am particularly indebted to Mr. C. J. Starnes of Midland, Michigan, for his translation of Piefke's Geschichte der bremischen Landespost, and for sharing with me information on postal rates. I wish to extend my sincere thanks to Dr. Robert de Wasserman of Brussels, Belgium, for his loan of photographs for illustration and his exchange of information on Belgian mails. I wish, too, to thank Dr. Jacques Stibbe of Brussels, for his kind and informative letters about Belgian mails. My gratitude is also extended to M. Raymond Salles of Paris for information about French mails, and to Mr. Walter Hubbard of London for photographs of covers for illustration and for his kind counsel. For the loan of photographs for illustration as well as for items from their private libraries, my sincere gratitude is extended to the late Hugh J. Baker, Jr., Mr. J. David Baker, Mr. Arthur E. Beane, Jr., Mr. William C. Coles, Jr., Mr. John A. Fox, Mr. Greighton C. Hart, Mr. Karl Jaeger, Mr. Millard H. Mack, Mr. Mortimer L. Neinken, Mr. James E. Schofield, Mr. Tracy W. Simpson, and Mr. George T. Turner. NUMBER 6 For their advice and encouragement, as well as for their many kindnesses over the years, my thanks are extended to Mr. Richard B. Graham, Mr. Robson Lowe, Mr. Elliott Perry, Mr. Marcus W. White, and the late Maurice C. Blake. I also wish to acknowledge with thanks the kindness of Dr. Robert L. D. Davidson, editor of the Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues, in granting me permission to use portions of my articles which appeared in that journal. Contents Page INTRODUCTION 1 1 Negotiation of the United States-Bremen Postal Arrangement of 1847 . . 3 2 Negotiation of the United States-British Postal Treaty of 15 December 1848 23 3 Postal Relations with France 40 4 The United States-French Postal Convention of 2 March 1857 70 5 The Prussian Closed-Mail Convention 85 6 Postal Relations with Belgium, 1844-1868 99 7 Amendments, New Conventions, and the Operations of the Steamship Lines 109 8 Postal Conventions Effective After 1 January 1868 147 9 Postal Relations with France, 1870-1876 164 10 Depreciated Currency Covers 184 Bibliography 194 Appendix: Postal Rates to Foreign Countries, 1848-1875 196 Index 227 IX Introduction In the winter of 1844 the citizens of Boston volun- tarily cut a path through the ice of East Boston harbor to free the Cunard line's Britannia and allow her to sail to sea. While the people of Boston were so ex- travagantly demonstrating their high regard for the British steamship line, Congressmen in Washington were contemplating it with a growing concern. It was not that Cunard's performance had been unsatisfac- tory. It had, in fact, exceeded all expectations. Since 1840 its passage time between Liverpool and Boston, via Halifax, had averaged only fourteen days, and sailings were being maintained with great regularity. It was, rather, the success of the Cunard line that was forcing Congress to take a critical view of the whole situation involving postal communication with Europe. The advent of the steam packet had blunted Ameri- can prestige. For many years American sailing packets had dominated the 'Atlantic shuttle." Although the sailing packets were still carrying the bulk of European emigrants and freight—including coal to America for use by the steam packets—most of the mail, cabin passengers, and fine freight were now carried by the British steamships. Their progress appeared inevitable, and the American flag would soon take second place on the 'Atlantic ferry." American pride, inflated by a surge of new nationalism, was piqued. But Congress was concerned with far more than piqued pride. The United States was becoming increasingly dependent upon the British for its postal communication with Europe. Additionally, the Cunard line was under con- tract to the British Admiralty, subsidized at £81,000 sterling annually, to carry the mails, and each of its ships carried on board an off-duty officer of the British navy as an agent of the Admiralty. The close tie be- tween the British Admiralty and the contract mail packets was noted by Congress. George E. Hargest is an associate professor with the Eco- nomics Department, Clark University, Worcester, Massachu- setts 01610. Now residing at 1275 46th Avenue, Vero Beach, Florida 32960. During the 1840s there was a great expansion of American foreign trade. Total foreign trade averaged $197 million annually during the first five years of the decade and $259 million for the last five years.1 The second half of the decade was characterized by a general tendency toward freer trade. In 1846 Great Britain repealed its Corn Laws, and in the same year the United States reduced its tariff. Increased in- dustrialization in Great Britain, coupled with high prices for foodstuffs caused by crop failures, particu- larly in Ireland, were also important causes of the increased American foreign trade. The representatives of American commercial inter- ests, now prosperous, began to flex their political sin- ews. Interested as they were in the rapid transmission of business information, particularly in regard to prices, the cost of disseminating such information was also a matter of their continuing concern. The postal re- form achieved in Great Britain stimulated them to press for lower and more uniform rates of postage in the United States. As early as 10 June 1840, Daniel Web- ster introduced a resolution in the Senate calling for lower rates of postage and the use of postage stamps.2 A British General Post Office order of June 1840 an- nounced the inauguration of the Cunard packet serv- ice, with "the Postage remaining as at present, viz. an Uniform Charge of Is. the Single Letter. . . ." 3 A later General Post Office order of February 1841 applied the one-shilling-packet rate to a letter whose weight did not exceed half an ounce, instead of a single letter consisting of one sheet of paper.4 Although this British packet rate represented a considerable reduc- 1 George R. Taylor, The Transportation Revolution, p. 445. Semi-averages were constructed, from annual data presented. See bibliography (pp. 194-195) for complete citations. " Van Dyk MacBride, "Barnabus Bates—The Rowland Hill of America," The American Philatelist 60, no. 8 (May 1947) : 635. c Frank Staff, The Transatlantic Mail, facsimile of original order reproduced, p. 144. 'Ibid., p. 173. 1 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHN tion in postage in comparison with the rates of 1837, American postal rates remained high, and agitation for postal reform in the United States was beginning to attract the attention of the public. Important as this reduction in postal rates was to American business, the Cunarders themselves were making additional savings possible. Their relatively rapid crossings, together with the regularity and cer- tainty of their sailings, were obviating the necessity for sending many duplicate copies of the same letter by different ships in order to be certain that a copy would arrive as early as possible, or would arrive at all. This had resulted in a considerable saving in clerical cost as well as in postage. There were, however, other aspects of the foreign- mail service that inconvenienced and annoyed mer- chants. Since the Cunarders ran to Liverpool, letters addressed to other parts of Europe were forwarded from England, often with great difficulty. American businesses usually employed a British banking, mer- chandising, or brokerage firm to act as their agent for forwarding mail. Agents on the continent were also employed. The agents paid the necessary postage and attended to the expeditious routing of letters. The act of 3 March 1845 authorized the postmaster general or the secretary of state to empower United States consuls to pay foreign postage and forward letters.6 Certain consuls were so empowered, but the consular service in general was not used for this purpose. The cost and cumbersomeness of forwarding mail through agents was an annoyance to American merchants who exerted political pressure upon Congress to eliminate the neces- sity for the procedure. Another source of annoyance was the impossibility of fully prepaying the postage to a European destina- tion on letters sent from the United States. Nor could the full postage be collected from an American ad- dressee on letters received from Europe. Some of the postage always had to be paid or collected in the United States and some in Europe. As it was a common practice of business to refuse to pay postage on and "Act of 3 March 1845, sec. 6-5, U.S., Statutes at Large 748-750. receive letters from persons unknown to them, Ameri- can merchants were forced to rely upon agents, if new contacts were to be made. Most of these difficulties arose because the United States had no postal conven- tion or treaty with any European country. When postal conventions existed, accounting between the^ post offices of the contracting countries was established, which made it possible to pay the whole postage on letters sent or received. Great as was the stake of American commercial interests in postal reform, it was not they who carried the fight to the public, but rather, a small group of "reformers" who spearheaded a campaign for lower and more uniform postal rates for both domestic and foreign mail. Spawned in the seething cauldron of social change that was America in the 1840s, zealots such as Barnabus Bates, Joshua Leavitt, and Elihu Burritt,G among others, waged a propaganda cam- paign on the public platform and in the press, for cheap postage. In this struggle, their chief antagonist was the United States Post Office Department with its army of 14,000 postmasters, clerks, and other em- ployees who feared that cheaper rates would lessen their emoluments.7 But neither the Post Office Department nor Congress could long resist the rising tide of public opinion and the political pressure being exerted by American com- mercial interests. Congress, caught up as it was in a surge of nationalistic feeling, also lent a sympathetic ear to those who demanded that the American flag be kept upon the high seas. In 1844, Congress, by a joint resolution, paved the way for the establishment of a United States postal service to Europe, and in 1845 passed an act providing for the subsidization of United States mail packets, as well as the reduction and simpli- fication of postal rates. These acts of Congress initiated the development of the United States postal service to European countries, and it is to this development that the following chapters are directed. 8 Frank Staff, "Campaign for Cheap Postage Was Rife With Propaganda," Postal History Journal II, no. 1 (Jan. 1967): 15. 7 MacBride, "Barnabus Bates", p. 636. Chapter 1 Negotiation of the United States-Bremen Postal Arrangement of 1847 Organization of the Ocean Steam Navigation Company The groundwork for the foreign mail provisions of the act of 3 March 1845 was laid by a joint reso- lution of Congress voted on 15 June 1844. While the act of 3 March 1825 x had given the postmaster gen- eral permission to make arrangements for the exchange of mail with foreign countries, it had not been incum- bent on him to do so, and by 1844 no such arrange- ments had been made with any European country. The joint resolution authorized the postmaster gen- eral to make such arrangements with the proper au- thorities of France and Germany. He was also au- thorized to make arrangements with "the owners or agents of vessels plying regularly between those coun- tries and the United States, whereby a safe and, as near as possible, a regular direct mail communication . . shall be secured—so that the entire inland and foreign postage on letters and other mail matter . . . may be paid at the place where they are respectively mailed or received." 2 The joint resolution was spe- cific on two points. Prepayment or collection of the entire postage required that international accounting be established by postal convention. Any such con- vention must include provision for optional prepay- ment if the entire postage was to be "paid at the 1 U.S., 4 Statutes at Large 102-114. See bibliography (pp. 194-195) for complete citations. = U.S. 5 Statutes at Large 718-719. place where they [letters] are respectively mailed or received." Since larger measures were being debated, Post- master General Wickliffe did not immediately act upon the authorization granted by the joint resolu- tion. At the time it was voted, there was a Whig Senate, a Democratic House, and President John Tyler, who was neither Whig nor Democrat. Despite this unpropitious political situation, Congress passed the postal act, which President Tyler signed in the waning hours of his administration. On the following day, James K. Polk became president, and shortly thereafter Cave Johnson became postmaster general. Although the act of 3 March 1845 was a product of the Tyler administration, it clearly reflects the nationalistic feeling that swept Polk into the White House. It authorized the postmaster general to make contracts for the transportation of the United States mail between any United States ports and those of any foreign power, such contracts to be made for a period of not less than four or more than ten years. All contracts were to be made with citizens of the United States, and the mail was to be transported in American vessels by American citizens. Preference was to be given to such bidder as proposed to carry the mail in steamships, and who stipulated that any of those steamships would be delivered to the United States Government, on demand, for the purpose of being converted into a vessel of war. Just compensation was to be paid the owner of any vessel so delivered.3 The 'Ibid., 748-750. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY act also provided for the subsidization of a line of American mail packets to ply between New York and such port or ports of foreign countries as the post- master general deemed appropriate. In addition, new and lowered rates of domestic postage as well as a packet rate to be used by the American packets when they came into operation were provided. These rates are outlined in Table 1. In October 1845 Postmaster General Cave Johnson invited tenders for mail services from New York to Liverpool, Bristol, Southampton, Antwerp, Bremen, Hamburg, Havre, Brest, or Lisbon.4 Immediately there was considerable lobbying, not only by shipping peo- ple, but also by foreign commercial interests who sought to have a particular foreign port selected as a European terminus of the American steamship line.0 The Belgian resident minister argued that Antwerp was the port of entry between Belgium and the coun- tries of the Tariff Union, comprising twenty seven states and thirty million customers. Belgium offered remission of tonnage and ship duties and the sea postage charge. When bargaining got tight, Belgium offered to bear some of the expense of establishing the steamship line. The movement for the selection of Bremen was spurred by Senator Arnold Duckwitz, postmaster of the Free Hanseatic City of Bremen. Through the American consul, Colonel A. Dudley Mann, Duckwitz let it be known that Bremen offered a free port, tax-free loading of coal at Bremerhaven, and liberal trade laws. From Bremen there would be 21,000 square miles of German trade territory, and beyond Bremen would be Austria, Italy, Switzerland, Den- mark, Norway, Sweden, and Russia. A railroad, in its last stages of completion, would unite Hanover with all parts of Germany and Austria; railroads, al- ready in the process of construction, would soon con- nect Bremen with most of the countries beyond. Colonel Mann, ardent and articulate in his support of the selection of Bremen, was recalled to Washington. The Bremen senate, realizing the opportunity this for- tuitous circumstance presented, sent with him C. Th. Gevekoht, a merchant who had spent a long time in Baltimore. Together they waged a campaign in behalf of Bremen. In this they were supported by the Prus- sian resident minister. Freiherr von Gerolt. and the 4 N. R. P. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 50. " Christian Piefke, Geschichte der bremischen Landespost, Chapter 22. efforts of the three were finally successful.6 Lobbying for the steamship contract had begun long before the passage of the act of 3 March 1845. As early as 1841, E. K. Collins, who ran the Dramatic line of Liverpool packets, headed a lobby that "argued for government aid to build mail steamers as potential cruisers." 7 After passage of the act the lobbies swung into high gear. Of the tenders received, that of Ed- ward Mills was the most favorable. He asked for $300,000 a year for a steam service to Havre. As it was finally negotiated, Mills was awarded a five-year contract valued at $400,000 a year for a fortnightly service to Bremen with permission for alternate sail- ings to terminate at Havre.8 Such a service would have required four steamships, and as it was finally ar- ranged, $100,000 annually was allocated to each ship. Since Mills was a promoter with little experience in the shipping business, the award of the contract to him aroused a good deal of criticism. Mills orga- nized the Ocean Steam Navigation Company in May 1846 and immediately set out to secure subscriptions to its $1 million of authorized stock. While a good head of nationalistic steam had been generated for the subsidy of a steam packet line, Mills had trouble in raising capital. This may have been a vote of no-confidence in Mills. Albion states that "the Herald expressed the fear that the new company would become a Wall Street plaything like the Harlem and Erie railroads." ° Some American merchants preferred the Cunard line and looked upon the line to Bremen as unwanted competition.10 It is certain that American shipping interests did not share the public's enthusiasm for the Ocean line. With great difficulty Mills raised $200,000. Then the Germans chipped in. Bremen signed for $100,000; Prussia, $100,000; Hanover, $25,000; Saxony, $20,000; and lesser amounts from Oldenburg, Hesse-Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt, Frank- fort on the Main, and certain Thuringian states. The German states raised, in total, $289,000, which affected American investment so that $600,000 was finally sub- scribed. Mills, however, was able to build only two steamships and was forced to assign part of his con- tract to Messrs. Fox and Livingston who organized the New York and Havre Steam Navigation Company. 0 Ibid. 7 R. G. Albion, The Rise of New York Port, p. 323. 8 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 51. 0 Albion, New York Port, p. 323. 10 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. NUMBER 6 The Ocean Steam Navigation Company (Ocean line) placed orders for two steamships of about 1,700 tons each with Westervelt and McKay. The engines and boilers were produced by the Novelty Works. While this yard had built many sailing ships, they lacked experience in building steamships—a fact that later became evident. The first of these ships, the Washington, was launched in January 1847, and the Hermann, ten months later. Mail Between Great Britain and the United States Under the 1845 Rates Because much of the mail between the United States and Germany passed in transit through England, it is necessary to discuss the method by which mail was exchanged between the United States and Great Brit- ain. The act of 3 March 1845 established new rates for domestic postage as well as a packet rate for mail to be conveyed by the proposed line of American steamers, whose subsidization was provided for by the act. In 1845 the steamers of the British-owned Great Western Steam Ship Company were still plying be- tween New York and Liverpool, but the competition offered the Cunard line by the steamships Great West- ern and Great Britain of that company was on the wane, and in 1846 they left the Atlantic ferry. The 770-ton auxiliary-screw United States-owned steam- ship Massachusetts made two voyages between New York and Liverpool during 1845 " while the 1,400-ton auxiliary-screw British steamer Sarah Sands made nine round voyages on the same run during 1847.12 As auxiliary steamers, they were primarily sailing ships that used steam when the wind failed, or to increase speed in a light breeze. They did not offer the Cunard line serious competition. After the Great Western and Great Britain left the scene, and before the Ocean line began to run in 1847 the Cunard line was oper- ating the only full-fledged steamships plying the North Atlantic. They were also, during this period, the only steamers conveying mail at a packet rate. It is, therefore, desirable at this point to understand the method of handling mail between the United States and Great Britain under the provisions of the act of 1845, as well as under the then existing British rates. As there was no accounting between the post offices Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 49. Ibid., p. 50. of the two countries, each had to charge and retain its own postage. The British, for example, always had to collect their packet postage on letters received in Great Britain, as well as on letters posted there. Sim- ilarly, the Americans always had to prepay the domes- tic postage to the port (Boston) on letters posted in the United States, and to collect the domestic (inland) postage from Boston to destination. On these incoming letters a ship fee of 20 per letter was also charged and collected. The rates are best understood when pre- sented in outline form, while the method of marking letters is best described by illustration. The rates are presented in Table 1. Covers Figure 1 illustrates a letter which was posted in Edinburgh, addressed to New York. The Is. packet postage was prepaid by a strip of six 2d. stamps issued in 1841. The letter left Liverpool on board the R.M.S. (Royal Mail Steamer) Acadia of the Cunard line on 4 December and arrived in Boston on 19 December 1845,13 whence it was forwarded to New York, a dis- tance of less than 300 miles. It was, therefore, rated for a collection of 70, indicated by a manuscript 7. This represents 50 inland plus 20 ship postage. Figure 2 presents a letter posted in Wilmington, Delaware, on 13 August 1847, addressed to Liverpool. It is prepaid 100 for a distance of more than 300 miles between Wilmington and Boston by a 100 stamp of the 1847 issue. Both the town mark and the grid can- celing the stamp are in dark olive-green.14 On the re- verse is an AMERICA/LIVERPOOL marking bearing the date of 28 August 1847, and on that date the R.M.S. Hibernia of the Cunard line, which had sailed from Boston on 16 August, arrived in Liverpool. The Liver- pool office applied in black ink a handstamp that imi- tates a manuscript marking intended to indicate a postage due of Is. This peculiarly shaped marking is immediately to the left of the 100 stamp. The cover is in the collection of Mr. Creighton C. Hart and is presented here with his kind permission. 13 All sailing data related to the Cunard line have been taken from incomplete records of the Cunard line by Lester L. Downing. These records have been completed by the author from Custom House reports in the Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current. 14 See Creighton C. Hart, "1847 Covers from Delaware," Chronicle 46 (Dec. 1963) ; see also "Early Transatlantic 1847 Covers," Chronicle 20, 1, Whole No. 57 (Feb. 1968). SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY ssu~. FIGURE 1.—COVER, from Edinburgh to New York, 1845. In 1847 Great Britain issued a Is. stamp that was extensively used to prepay the packet rate. The stamp is hexagonal in shape, and most of these stamps have all margins meticulously cut away. Figure 3 presents a letter from a London merchant addressed to "Mess Abraham Bell & Son/New York." The clerk who ap- plied the Is. stamp to this letter carelessly neglected to cut away the margins. On the reverse of the letter is a double-lined Maltese-cross marking inscribed LS/ 15 JA is/1848, applied in orange-red ink. This is a marking of the Lombard Street office at London, showing the letter was sent from there on 15 January 1848. The letter was sent to Liverpool, whence it was conveyed to Boston by the R.M.S. Acadia of the Cu- nard line. Arriving in Boston on 1 February 1848, the letter was sent to New York where it was rated for a col- lection of 50 inland plus 20 ship postage, a total of 70. Mail Between Bremen and the United States Before the Postal Arrangement of 1847 Prior to 1841, all mail between Bremen and the United States was conveyed by private sailing ships. On 30 August 1841, the General Post Office at London and the Post Office of Bremen signed a postal conven- tion which made service by the Cunard packets avail- able at reduced rates.1!i Article I set a sea rate of 6d. per half ounce for direct sea conveyance to or from London, via Cuxhaven, via Hamburg, or direct to Bremerhaven. "The British rate of transit postage to be taken on letters posted in or addressed to Bremen . . . passing through the United Kingdom to or from its colonies or foreign countries, shall be that which is now, or shall hereafter be, taken upon letters between the United Kingdom and such colonies or foreign countries." Article II set a transit rate between Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven and Bremen at 4 grote (2d.). Thus, a total rate of 8d. (16 grote) was established for transit between London and Bremen. Since the British trans- atlantic packet rate was ls. (24 grote), letters sent between Bremen and the United States frontier by this route required that 40 grote be prepaid in Bremen on letters sent, and collected there on letters received. The British share of this postage was ls. 6d. (36 grote). The London office appears to have performed the accounting on all letters sent by this route. Distinctly British 1/6 markings appear on all single-rate letters, ' British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 30, pp. 338-340. NUMBER 6 372-C45 O—TO——2 FIGURE 2.—COVER, from Wilmington, Delaware to Liverpool, 1847. (Creighton C. Hart collection) FIGURE 3.—COVER, from London to New York, 1848. *fs. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY TABLE 1.—United States and British Postal Rates {in Effect 1 July 184$) United States Rates a Inland or domestic postage: Single rate for 2 letters not exceeding one-half ounce: If conveyed under 300 miles 5^ If conveyed over 300 miles 10 Rate progression: For every additional half ounce or fraction thereof, 1 additional rate Packet postage (to or from port of arrival or departure): Not exceeding one-half ounce 24 Exceeding one-half but not exceeding one ounce 48 For every additional half ounce or fraction thereof 15 Ship rates (for private ships, not under government contract): Addressed to the port of arrival 6 Addressed to a destination beyond port of arrival Inland postage from port to destination, plus 2^ ship postage per letter British Rates b (between any point in Great Britain and the U.S. frontier) Packet postage (by Cunard contract packets): Not exceeding one-half ounce Ship rates (for private ships, not under government contract): Not exceeding one-half ounce Rate progression (applicable to both packet and ship rates) Not over one-half ounce Over one-half but not-over one ounce Over one but not over two ounces For every additional ounce or fraction thereof, 2 additional rates ls. 0d. 8d. 1 rate 2 rates 4 rates 1 NOTE: No triple rate or further odd-numbered rates existed. «■ Rates as stated in act of 3 March 1845; 5 Statutes at large 733, 737. See also American Almanac, 1850. b Rates were prepaid in Great Britain on letters sent, and collected in Great Britain on letters received. in red on those from Bremen and in black on those to Bremen. It might be well, at this point, to define the basic mail services then in use. "Direct mail," as the name implies, referred to mail conveyed directly from a port of one country to a port of another without passing in transit over the territory of an intermediate country. "Open mail" referred to letters routed by an exchange office to a foreign exchange office with whom it corresponded, which in turn, routed it to another office, and so on, until the letter reached its destination. This necessitated sorting of letters at each office and increased the probability that they would be mis-sent or charged with erroneous postage. It was also expensive and increased the time required in transit. This was in contrast to "closed mail" which was forwarded by an exchange office of origin in closed bags to an exchange office of distribu- tion abroad. Such mail would pass in unbroken state through the territory of one or more foreign countries to a distributing exchange office where it would be opened and sorted for the first time. It was usually provided that closed mail be accompanied by a courier of the dispatching country when passing over foreign territory. Another avenue of mail between Bremen and the United States was opened by the Anglo-Prussian treaty of 1 October 1846.16 Under provisions of this conven- Ibid., vol. 34, pp. 34-38. NUMBER 6 TABLE 2.— United States and Prussian Postal Rates {Under the 1846 Anglo-Prussian Treaty) Postage Up to Up to Exactly Up to Up to Up to 5 OZ. \ oz. \ oz. J oz. 1 oz. lioz British transit 0s.6d. 0s.6d. 0s.6d. ls.Od. ls.Od. 2s.0d. Transatlantic packet 1 0 1 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 4 0 Direct rate 1 6 1 6 1 6 3 0 3 0 6 0 Belgian transit 0 2 0 4 0 6 0 6 0 8 0 10 Closed-mail rate 1 8 1 10 2 0 3 6 3 8 6 10tion, direct mail was routed via Hamburg or the Netherlands, closed mail, through Belgium. For direct mail, the Prussian exchange offices were Hamburg and Emmerich, and the British used London, Hull, and Dover. On closed mail, London was the only British office, while Prussia used Aix-la-Chapelle [Aachen] and Cologne. Rates to or from the United States were spe- cifically provided for and are set forth in Table 2. The rates set forth in Table 2 indicate that the pro- gression used for the British transit and transatlantic packet postages was the same as that then in force in Great Britain. It is included in Table 1 as applying to the British packet and ship rates. For letters ex- ceeding one ounce in weight, this "British" progres- sion prescribed that for each additional ounce or fraction thereof, two additional rates were charged. The Belgian transit postage, however, used a dif- ferent progression. The lowest rate was for a letter weighing "up to, but not including one-fourth ounce." From this rate the progression increased in quarter- ounce increments, but a rate for a letter that weighed exactly half an ounce was allowed. The treaty pro- vided that Id. (British) was equal to 10 pfennige (Prussian). It should be noted that there were 12 pfennige to the silbergroschen, which, according to this formula, was worth 2.40. Prussia rated letters in multiples of 10 pfennige, that is, virtually in pence. On closed mail, London performed all the accounting necessary for the preparation of the monthly reports, which Prussia, after review, approved or rejected. The London office marked the cover to show the breakdown of the total British debit or credit to Prussia. To this postage was added German transit postage to destina- tion or from point of origin.17 After the United States-British treaty became fully effective on 1 July 1849, the ls. transatlantic packet postage included in Table 2 was reduced to 8d. for 17 See George E. Hargest, "Analysis of Foreign Rate and Route for Problem Cover," Chronicle 46 (Dec. 1963): a single rate, the progression remaining the same. Eightpence, or its proper multiple, therefore, can be substituted for the one-shilling rate in Table 2 to arrive at the proper rates after 1 July 1849. Covers Figure 4 illustrates a letter posted at the Bremen City Post Office on 27 August 1847, addressed to Bal- timore. It was forwarded to England under provi- sions of the Anglo-Bremen convention of 1841 and was accordingly prepaid 40 Bremen grote. The pre- payment does not show on the cover, but the Bremen Post Office marked it FRANCO, indicating that the required postage to the United States frontier had been paid. The Bremen double-circle marking, ST. P.A./BREMEN/2 7/8 abbreviates Stadt Post Abteilungj Bremen/21 /August, and literally means "State Post Department." The London office applied an orange- red PAID/30AU3O/I84 7 marking and also marked it in red manuscript 1/6 to indicate the British share of the postage, that is, ls. transatlantic packet and 6d. Bremen-Britain transit postages. The oval L/AU 3O/H, applied in black at Liverpool, is a packet mark and shows the date the letter was included in the mail to be conveyed by the next packet sailing, which, in this case, was that of the R.M.S. Britannia from Liverpool on 5 September 1847. Arriving in Boston on 19 September (not shown), it was forwarded to Baltimore, a distance of over 300 miles. The blue handstamp 12 shows it was rated for a collection of 12^, that is, lOc' inland postage plus 2c1 ship fee. Figure 5 presents a cover mailed at Dusseldorf, Prussia, on 14 June 1847, addressed to "Mr. Thomas Lamb/Boston" through his Philadelphia agents. This letter was forwarded to either the Aachen or the Co- logne office, whence it was sent through Belgium to London in closed mail under provisions of the Anglo- Prussian convention of 1 October 1846. The Dussel- 10 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY /^ ■ Jy^tf *? If 1 ?c< St 'S%*i/ l/tr 3Q i }^/r% '?,r-^ M/^Jk^ tltl Fp* A I v / y///'1// FIGURE 4.—COVER, from Bremen to Baltimore, 1847. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) t-*^- Y^y £*>*+. ^ FIGURE 5.—COVER, from Diisseldorf, Prussia, to Philadelphia; forwarded to Boston, 1847. (Creighton C. Hart collection) NUMBER 6 11 dorf office had marked it in manuscript at upper right, 5/8, which indicated that it weighed five-eighths of a zoll loth. Since the zoll loth weighed about 14 grams, this letter weighed about 8 grams, over one-fourth but under one-half ounce. Prepayment of postage was compulsory, and the full rate to the United States frontier was prepaid. The amount of this prepayment is not shown, but the Dusseldorf office marked it with a large p in oval, indicating that the postage was paid. The Prussian exchange office credited Great Britain with 22d. (or 220 pfennige). This is indicated by a red-crayon 22 at lower left, which was placed beside a manuscript "franco/via England," probably written by the person who posted the letter. It was then sent in closed mail through Belgium to the London office. As the accounting was performed by the London office, it was marked 1-/10 in red ink, indicating the Brit- ish postage of ls. lOd. (equivalent to 22d.), as is indi- cated on Table 2 for a letter weighing under one-half ounce. London forwarded the letter to Liverpool, after applying an orange-red circular PAID/ I 7 JULY/I84 7 marking. Upon receipt in Liverpool, it was marked with a black oval L/JU 17/H marking, and two days later, on 19 June, it was sent to Boston by R.M.S. Cale- donia of the Cunard line, which arrived there on 3 July 1847. The letter is addressed to a Philadelphia agent who paid 120 upon its receipt (10^ postage for a letter conveyed over 300 miles plus 20 ship fee). The agents crossed out their name and address, leaving the name and address of their client, "Mr. Thomas Lamb/Bos- ton." The agents prepaid the letter for forwarding to Boston by affixing a5(J stamp of the 1847 issue in the upper left corner and posting the letter. Since Boston is over 300 miles from Philadelphia, a prepay- ment of 100 should have been made. The Philadelphia post office recognized the 50 prepaid by the stamp, but marked the letter in manuscript Due 5, which was to be collected from Mr. Lamb in Boston.18 Figure 6 illustrates a cover (face only) posted in Baltimore, addressed to Bremen. It is endorsed "p America Str. of 31 July from N.YK," and is prepaid 50 for a distance under 300 miles by a 50 stamp of the 1847 issue. R.M.S. America of the Cunard line sailed from New York on 31 July 1850, thus determining the year of this cover. The letter evidently weighed over one-fourth ounce but less than one-half ounce and was sent from England in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail. Since this was posted after the United States-British treaty became effective, the packet rate was only 8d., which, if substituted in Table 2 for a letter of this weight, makes a total postage due to Great Britain of one ls. 6d. This amount is debited to Prussia by a manuscript 1/6. This was equal to 36 Bremen grote to which was added the Prussian- Bremen postage of 8 grote; a total collection of 44 grote is indicated by a 44 in red crayon. Ibid. /$,... ...u. ^,V-^-A^y£- 3£«_ FIGURE 6.—COVER, from Baltimore to Bremen, 1850. (Creighton C. Hart collection) 12 The 1847 Postal Arrangement With Bremen After it was decided that the United States' subsi- dized Ocean line was to run between New York and Bremen with a call at Southampton each way, nego- tiations for a postal convention between Bremen and the United States were immediately undertaken. When Gevekoht left Bremen for the United States on 28 No- vember 1845, he carried with him instructions and the necessary credentials of authority from the Bremen senate for the negotiation of a postal convention. His instructions included the following provisions: 19 1. The City Post Office at Bremen was to become an American Agency for the receipt and delivery of all letters and other mail matter conveyed be- tween the United States and the Weser by the American line of steamers. 2. The mail bags arriving with the steamer were to be turned over to the Bremen City Post Office; mail bags for the United States were to be sealed at the Bremen City Post Office and pass unbroken through the German Postal Administration, direc- ted to America, via Bremen. 3. If the Weser is ice-free, one or more steamers are to be held ready to carry the mail and passengers in about 3/2 hours from the American steamer to Bremen. If the Weser is iced over, the mails are to be forwarded by courier. 4. The Bremen City Post Office is to be in charge of mails dispatched and received from Hamburg as well as from Oldenburg and the Netherlands. Mail matter for other German states is to be turned over to the Hanover postal system, since it can be for- warded more rapidly by the Hanover railroad. 5. For performing these services as an exclusive American Agency, the Bremen Post Office is to receive a portion of the American sea postage as commission, the amount of which is to be deter- mined by the American Postmaster General. From these provisions, the desires of Bremen can be clearly seen. It wanted to be made the "depot" for United States mail to and from Central and Eastern Europe. It wanted the exclusive right to handle all mail conveyed by the American steamers. These in- structions reflect the bitter commercial rivalry that existed between the several German states. For ex- ample, the closing of the mailbags prescribed in clause Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 2 of the provisions would avert possible diversion of letters from Prussia and the Thurn and Taxis posts by the Hanover postal administration. As clause 4 dis- closes, Bremen wanted to "be in charge" of the mails dispatched to and received from Hamburg so that this rival city state would not have the opportunity of routing and distributing it. By obtaining the establish- ment of Bremen as an exclusive American mail agency, a monopoly by Bremen over all German mail con- veyed by the American steamship line was secured. As soon as Senator Duckwitz learned that Bremen had been selected as the European terminus of the Ocean line, he planned some far-reaching changes that he felt must-be realized before the first American steamer arrived. On 28 February 1846 20 he concluded a postal convention with Hanover which set up a post office at Bremerhaven and separately defined the postal responsibilities of Bremen and Hanover. It was imperative, he felt, that harbor improvements be made and that the railroad line between Bremen and Hanover be completed. In these matters, Duck- witz secured the cooperation of the Hanover minister of foreign affairs, Privy Councilor von Falcke,21 who won for him the support of the Hanover government. On 26 May 1847, Major Selah R. Hobbie, first as- sistant postmaster general of the United States, was given his instructions and credentials as special agent of the Post Office Department with power to formulate postal arrangements with Bremen and other European states. Specifically, he was instructed to proceed to Bremen on the maiden voyage of the Washington and also to visit Havre, London, and Paris to arrange for the reception, transmission, and delivery of the United States mail.22 It is strange that the first Bremen postal arrange- ment is not published in the Statutes at Large. The omission probably resulted from the fact that Congress was not given the completed text with the regulations until 3 February 1849, and then only after a resolution of the Senate called for particulars of the arrange- ment.23 The House of Representatives, however, had earlier made some inquiries about our foreign postal arrangements. On 17 January 1848, it had passed a resolution requesting a report "of such measures as are rendered necessary by the present state of our 20 Ibid. 21 Ibid. 22 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 25, 30th Cong., 2nd sess., serial 531, p. 5. " Ibid., p. 1. NUMBER 6 13 foreign mail service." 2i Postmaster General Cave Johnson made reply by reporting a twelve-page letter from Major Hobbie, dated 15 January 1848. Hobbie explained his part in the negotiation of the agreement and set forth a schedule of rates upon which tentative accord had been secured. Pertinent portions of his letter follow: 25 When I arrived at Bremen, in June last, I found a ready and willing consideration extended at once to the subject of our international mail intercourse with Germany, and to all suggestions for its improvement. Besides the post office au- thorities at Bremen, I met there the representatives from the post offices of Prussia, Hanover, Brunswick, and Hamburg; and a communication from the Directeur General of the Thurn and Taxis posts at Frankfort-on-the-Main, was brought to me by Charles Graebe, Esq., an American consul, and a zealous and devoted friend of American interests. The postal systems of Germany are a very complicated organiza- tion. The Prince of Thurn and Taxis (resident at Ratisbon, in the Kingdom of Bavaria) holds by ancient feudatory grant, revived at the Congress of Vienna, the exclusive right of mail conveyance in seventeen states of the German confederation; and in most of the remaining states, a right concurrent with the separate right of local governments. This circumstance I found, after my first visit to Bremen, and after I had an inter- view at Frankfort with the Directeur General of the Thurn and Taxis posts, embarrassed my operations with difficulties somewhat peculiar. The General and the local authorities entertained conflicting views. Deeming it unwise to excite jealousies, and not having time to follow out the negotiations with each, I judged it best to rely upon the agency of the government of Bremen, to effect the desired results of uni- form and reduced postages in Germany upon American mails. I then adjusted with the post office authority of that govern- ment, all needful arrangements. The post office authority of the Hanseatic republic of Bre- men is exercised by a committee of its Senate, the principal member of which is the Hon. Arnold Duckwitz. With him my business was transacted and arrangements made. Through him the applications were presented to the different govern- ments to reduce the postages and establish uniform rates on American mails. It is undoubtedly fortunate that Hobbie delegated his authority for negotiation with the German states to Duckwitz, for this gentleman worked unremittingly and accomplished surprising results. When Hobbie ar- rived in Bremen, it was his intention to conclude an agreement with all Germany which would establish reduced and uniform postages. Duckwitz pointed out that if this were to be done, he would have to make separate agreements with at least seventeen German states. Hobbie is said to have described the separation 21 U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 35, 30th Cong., 1st sess., serial 516, p. 1. "'Ibid., pp. 8-9. of the German states as "humbug," 26 but Duckwitz persuaded him that best results could be secured if negotiations were conducted by the Bremen agency. It was finally agreed that the German postage for a single letter of one-half ounce, or one German loth, should be 12^, equal to 12 Bremen grote, 5 Prussian silbergroschen, or 4 Hanoverian gute groschen.2. Added to this postage was the packet postage of 24^, and finally, the American inland postage of 5$S or 10^. It was also agreed that only those German postal systems that would reduce their postage to 12^ would be allowed to exchange letters by direct steamship. In accordance with the principle established by the joint resolution of Congress of 15 June 1844, optional prepayment of the international rate was to be pro- vided. At the end of the negotiations, Duckwitz and others suggested that it might be proper for Bremen to charge a postage of 2^ on letters conveyed between Bremen and Bremerhaven. Since Hobbie had no instructions on this point, he noted the request, and Duckwitz left the matter to be considered at a later date. Although all difficulties were not yet overcome, the arrangement was signed at Washington on 29 March and at Bremen on 26 June 1847. Excerpts of sig- nificant sections of the text follow: 2S 1. The Post Office Department at Washington appoints the postmaster at Bremen its sole and exclusive agent for the receipt and forwarding of mail conveyed by the Amer- ican mail steamers between New York and Bremerhaven. 2. On arrival of the steamers on the Weser, the captain will deliver the mail bags to the Bremen postal agent at Bremerhaven. 3. During the season of the year that will admit it, a Weser steamboat will be held in readiness to take the mails to Bremen; when navigation in the Weser is inter- rupted, or when the steamer arrives at night, the mail bags will be dispatched to Bremen by courier, the time of such transit not to exceed five hours. 4. All mail to America will be forwarded exclusively by the Bremen City Post Office, "the mail bags to be closed at the post office at Bremen, and all letters for steamers are to be delivered there." 5. The Bremen Post Office agrees that a separate bag may be exchanged with the Hamburg Post Office, to contain only the Hamburg matter, and no mail for points beyond Hamburg. Such bag is to be under the control of the Bremen mail agent at Bremerhaven. 6. The Bremen postmaster "is to take charge of the receiving, forwarding, and despatching of the mails, accounting to "" Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 27 Ibid. 28 Senate Executive Document 25, 30 Cong., 2 sess., serial 531, pp. 7-9. 14 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY the Postmaster General of the United States for the United States postage received by the postmaster at Bremen." For this service he was to receive a commis- sion of twenty percent, "to be cast upon the amount of postage collected and credited to the Postmaster General of the United States." 7. The Post Office Department "of the Hanseatic republic of Bremen declares itself responsible for the Bremen post- master in behalf of all services to be performed under this agreement." It should be noted that the above agreement closely parallels the instructions given Gevekoht by the Bremen senate in 1845. The rate structure was not included in the agreement itself, but was established by regu- lations, which were signed at Bremen on 13 September 1847.20 Significant portions of the fourteen clauses of these regulations are excerpted below, as follows: 1. Provided that the sender of a letter should have the option of (a) leaving the whole postage to be paid by the receiver (b) prepaying the whole postage to the place of destina- tion (c) when sent from the United States, of paying the United States postage to Bremen, leaving the Euro- pean postage unpaid; when sent from Bremen, of paying the European postage from Bremen, leaving the United States postage unpaid. 4. Since the mail agent at Bremen would have difficulty in determining distances under or over 300 miles in the United States, it was provided that when he collected the United States postage, i.e., on prepaid letters sent from Bremen, or on unpaid letters from the United States, he was to collect it as follows: At 24tj: the single letter—from or to the City of New York At 294 the single letter—from or to any other part of the state of New York, or from or to the states of New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Con- necticut, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, or the District of Columbia. At 34 'f% ~~^t~ Z *$**"* FIGURE 7.—COVER, from New York to Berlin, Prussia, 1848. 18 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY tated frequent pauses to "blow out" salt sediment. The original boilers of Washington and Hermann were gi- gantic affairs that proved to be inefficient, and they were replaced by smaller ones in 1851. Since engines, boilers, and bunkers took up so much space, there was little left for passengers and cargo. The Atlantic cross- ings wore out the paddle steamers at a rapid rate, necessitating high repair and maintenance costs. "Gen- eral experience up to 1850 established that an ocean steamship company had to earn an annual sum equal to 25% of its capital before beginning to show a profit." 3G None of the early steamship lines wanted to run their ships during the winter months, particularly in December and January. Because winter weather on the North Atlantic was usually stormy, passengers and cargo were scarce. Only in dire necessity was a person willing to undertake a winter voyage, because ships were cold, the quarters cramped, and shipboard dis- eases were reputed to be more prevalent in winter. Merchants were unwilling to ship certain kinds of freight during the winter months because of the pos- sibility of its freezing. Faced with greatly curtailed revenues and increased costs, only the heavily subsi- dized lines ran regularly throughout the year. The experiences of Hermann and Washington dur- ing the winter of 1848-49 may serve as an example of the conditions ships might expect to encounter on the North Atlantic in winter. The New York Tribune of Friday morning, 5 Janu- ary 1849, carried the following news item: Arrival of the steamship Hermann at Boston—Boston, Jan- uary 4th The steamship Hermann, Capt. Crabtree, which left Southampton, 12 December, arrived here this morning having experienced a constant succession of heavy westerly gales; put in for coals. Has 300 tons of freight. Anchored in Nantasket Roads last night at 9 o'clock. The following is a list of her passengers: [24 names were listed]. The Hermann's mails will be sent this afternoon via Stonington. The Shipping and Commercial List shows that Hermann arrived in New York on 6-7 January, that is, late Saturday evening or on Sunday. Washington, which arrived in New York on 8 Janu- ary 1849, had suffered damage in the same storm. The 13 January 1849 issue of the Shipping and Commercial List carried the following item under "Gales and Disasters:" Ibid., p. 52. The Steam ship Washington, Johnson, at this port from Southampton, 27th ult. lat. 51.28 Ion. 34.20 experienced a hurricane from S.W. which lasted twenty three hours, then shifted N.W. when she shipped a sea which carried away two forward scuttles, and booby hatches, stove bul- warks and forward sky light, filling the cabin with water three feet deep. Examination of the sailing dates of the Ocean line discloses that there was no sailing from New York during any January until 1854, and there were only two December sailings by the line from its inception in 1847 until it ceased operations in 1857.3r The return trip from the November sailing from New York usu- ally brought the ships back to New York in late Decem- ber or early January, and the next arrival was not until early April. The failure of these ships to sail in winter created difficult problems for the postmaster general. Until the harbor facilities at Bremerhaven were completed in September 1851,3S neither the United States nor Bremen could effectively protest the irregu- larity of sailings. Not only would the Ocean line ships have to face the gales and cold of the North Atlantic, but they also would find no adequate protection against ice and storm at Bremerhaven. The run be- tween Bremerhaven and Southampton was subject to particularly severe weather in winter. Upon the return of Hermann to New York on 23 December 1851, it was found that she had "cracked" in the intense cold.39 She underwent extensive repairs and was reported to be in the Navy Yard from 7 to 20 March 1852.40 Although Bremen frequently protested the continued irregularity of sailings, these protests appear to have fallen on deaf ears. Only in the fiscal years of 1855-56 and 1856-57 did the line make the twelve annual round voyages required by its contract. One reason for the omission of the winter sailings was the method adopted by the Post Office Depart- ment for paying the subsidies. The Ocean line con- tract called for a subsidy of $200,000 for twelve round voyages per year. Actually, this was calculated at $16,667 per round voyage, and the Company was paid for the number of round voyages made. Under the act of 27 June 1848, the postmaster general was au- thorized and required to levy fines upon the contractors 37 Sailing and arrival information for the Ocean line was taken from the appropriate editions of the Shipping and Com- mercial List. 3S Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 30 Ibid. 40 Shipping and Commercial List, 20 Dec. 1851-24 Mar. 1852. NUMBER 6 19 for any unreasonable or unnecessary delay in perform- ance of a trip, but such fine was not to exceed one half of the contract price paid for the trip.41 It appears that maximum fines were seldom levied, and it was cheaper for the contractor to forego the subsidy for the voyage and pay whatever fine was assessed than it was to make the trip. In his annual report for the year 1853-54, Postmaster General James Campbell complained that "on the Bremen line one of the monthly voyages has been omitted. These irregularities materially detract from the efficiency of our mail service across the Atlantic." 42 The Bremen Closed Mail The Post Office Department was trying to build an American packet service to England that would ap- proximate that of the Cunard line. After the Havre and Collins lines started to run in 1850, it was planned that there would be twenty-six voyages by the Collins line, and twelve each by the Bremen and Havre lines, making a total of fifty round voyages by American steamers against a total of fifty-two by the Cunard line. Sailing dates were set on Saturdays for all lines, the Bremen and Havre lines' monthly sailings to alternate with the fortnightly sailings of the Collins line, so that there was a scheduled sailing from New York every Saturday, with the exception of one Saturday in the months of December and January. An act of 31 August 1852 l3 authorized an added sailing by the Bremen and Havre lines, which brought the American packet scheduled sailings up to the fifty-two then being main- tained by the Cunard line. The steamship companies, however, regarded the additional sailings as a privilege rather than an obligation, for only in the fiscal year of 1855-56 did the Havre line make its scheduled thirteen round voyages, while the Ocean line made no more than twelve round voyages in any fiscal year during the entire life of the line. With these irregulari- ties in sailings, it was indeed difficult for the Post Office Department to realize its goal of having Ameri- cans patronize the American lines. During the winter of 1848-49, the Ocean line made 11 U.S., Postal Laws and Regulations, Chap. 8, sec. 176, 1866, p. 45. *~ Senate Executive Document 1, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 747, p. 631. 43 House Executive Document, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 674, p. 643. no sailing from New York between 20 November 1848 and 20 February 1849. During these months letters wholly unpaid, or wholly prepaid with Bremen rates, as well as letters prepaid with the United States postage of 240, 290, or 340 were appearing at the New York office. These letters could not be sent by the Cunard line without forcing the mailers to suffer excessive overpayments of postage. How or when the letters were sent is not known. The evidence of one cover posted during this period and marked with a debit for the 240 packet postage indicates it was sent by sailing ship. During the winter of 1849-50, the situation was even more acute. There was no sailing by the Ocean line between 20 October 1849 and 20 February 1850, the November sailing of Washington having been canceled. Postmaster General Jacob Collamer, however, now had a new avenue available to him for sending mail to Bremen. On 1 July 1849, the United States-British treaty had become fully effective. By Article VIII, the United States had the privilege of sending closed mails through England; by Article IX, closed mail was paid for by the ounce at two single-letter rates plus 25 percent. Transatlantic packet postage was 160 per single-letter rate and, thus, would amount to 400 per ounce (2 x 160 plus 25%). By the Anglo-Bremen treaty of 1841, the single-letter rate between London and Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven was 6d. (120). Applica- tion of the Article IX formula to this rate resulted in a postage of 300 per ounce (2 x 120 plus 25%). These two rates added together resulted in a total postage to the Bremen frontier of 700 per ounce. This was high postage, but Postmaster General Collamer decided to make use of the route. After the agreement of Bremen was secured, Britain was notified that the United States would exchange closed mails via the London-Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven route.44 The mail, already marked with Bremen rates, was forwarded in closed bags by the Cunard line to Liver- pool, thence through London to Bremerhaven. The United States mail agent at Bremen rated, marked, and forwarded the letters as if they had been conveyed by the Ocean line, direct from New York. Except for the date of mailing, it is impossible to determine from the markings which route was used to convey a letter. On incoming mail by this route, however, endorsements "By closed mail, via London" are sometimes seen. In the following year, the Collins and Havre lines began to run, both subsidized by the United States. " Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22 20 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Shortly thereafter, the Bremen closed mail was sent by these lines, rather than by the Cunard Line, so that the 400-per-ounce packet postage could be levied against their subsidies. The Bremen closed mail made available a weekly service to Germany, by direct steamers once a month and via England in the remain- ing weeks. At the request of Dr. Bartsch,43 director of Bremen Posts, the Bremen closed mail was used throughout the year, instead of only during the winter months. The service was continued until superseded by the Prussian closed mail on 16 October 1852.4C Schedules prepared by the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department for the fiscal year ended 30 June 1853—the last year the Bremen closed mail service was used—disclosed that mail was dispatched by this route during the third and fourth quarters of 1852 and the first quarter of 1853, after which only Prussian closed mail is reported. During this last fiscal year, a total of 53,064 ounces of Bremen closed mail was exchanged, of which the Collins line conveyed 27,290 ounces, and the Havre line carried 25,774 ounces. Bremen sent 35,980 ounces to the United States " Ibid. iU House Executive Document 1, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 674, 645. by this route, while only 17,084 ounces were dispatched by the United States to Bremen.47 Figure 8 presents a cover that was sent in the Bremen closed mail. A folded letter posted in Bremen on 30 December 1851, addressed to Baltimore, it is endorsed btpr. closed Mail via London." Since no inland postage was charged in Bremen, only the United States postage was paid on a prepaid letter. At left is a red-crayon 20, showing a prepayment of 20 Bremen grote (200). To the right of the 20 is a large manuscript 20 in red ink, indicating the Bremen credit of 200 to the United States. At lower left is a boxed PAID applied in red by Bremen. In red at lower right is a circular NEW-YORK/ JAN/2 1 marking which shows the date the letter was received by the New York office. Since there was no arrival by an Ocean line ship between 23 December 1851 and 18 March 1852, the letter could not have been conveyed by a ship of that line. The Collins liner Arctic, however, arrived in New York on 21 January 1852, the date in the New York postmark, and it is, therefore, presumed that it arrived by that ship. Figure 9 illustrates an unpaid letter that was posted in New York, addressed to Dresden, Saxony. The New "House Executive Document 1, 33rd Cong. 1 sess., serial 692, pp. 731,739. *C. >C^^^^-s&Z&<^ FIGURE 8.—COVER, from Bremen to Baltimore, 1851. NUMBER 6 21 York office debited Bremen with the packet postage of 24^ by stamping it with a 24 in black ink at upper right. It also marked the letter with a boxed NOT PAID in red. At lower left is the endorsement "pr Canada." The circular NEW-YORK/AUG/I4 postmark is applied in red, and Cunard sailing records show that the Can- ada sailed from New York on 14 August 1850.4S The cover is docketed in red New York-Dresden/1850, and this year date agrees with the endorsement to the Can- ada and the sailing date of this ship. The Bremen office marked the letter with a 9/AMERICA/UBER BREMEN in red. This 9 or a multiple of 9 has been seen on a num- ber of covers rated by the Bremen office. It is suspected that it means 9 grote (90), and that it represents the Bremen share of the transit postage. Saxony marked the letter 16 3/10 in red crayon. This indicated a col- lection in Dresden of 16 neugroschen and 3 pfennige. This collection included a small delivery fee 49 which was added to the amount in neugroschen that Saxony held to be equal to the convention rate of 360. Figure 10 illustrates a letter posted in Schenectady, 48 Sailings of the Cunard line were taken from records of the line by L. L. Downing and are presented here with his kind permission. [See also in. 13.] i0 A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, pp. 107, 257. New York, addressed to Baden. The letter weighed over half an ounce, or 14.18 grams, but not over 15 grams. Since it weighed over half an ounce, two rates were required in the United States. The person posting the letter paid two 50 inland rates from Schenectady to New York city by affixing a 100- stamp of the 1847 issue. The letter was, therefore, forwarded from New York as if it were a letter originating in that port. The New York office debited Bremen with double the single-rate packet postage of 240, or 480. Since the Schenectady postmark bears the date of 14 April (1851), it is assumed the letter was forwarded via the direct route by the Washington which sailed from New York on 19 April 1851. The foreign markings are of particular interest. The cover illustrates the complicated nature of the German rates, which involved several currencies. It might be well first to state the value in United States cents of the currencies appearing on this cover. In 1850, the. thaler of northern Germany was worth 690; there were 30 silbergroschen to the thaler, worth 2.30 each. In Prussia, there were 12 pfennige to the silber- groschen, but the groschen in other states was worth 10 pfennige. The rix-dollar of Bremen was worth 78.30 and there were 72 grote to the dollar, worth 1.090 each, but generally considered to be worth 10. The >^c 94lic»s^g5 /%^«la*K *; //si ^*~^tScc^isy^ ^ ^^~, /&^-e^ FIGURE 16.-—COVER, from Liverpool to Princeton, New Jersey, 1849. (Photograph by Smithsonian) appended to the Post Office Appropriations Act of 3 March 1849: 26 That to better enable the postal treaty with Great Britain to go into full effect with equal advantage to both coun- tries, letters shall be mailed as composing one rate only where the letter does not exceed the weight of half an ounce avoirdupois; where it exceeds half an ounce but does not exceed an ounce, as composing two rates; where it ex- ceeds an ounce but does not exceed two ounces, as compos- ing four rates . . . and in like progression for each addi- tional ounce, or fraction of an ounce. While the Appropriations Act did not become ef- fective until the beginning of the new fiscal year, 1 July 1849, Postmaster General Jacob Collamer, who had succeeded Cave Johnson, lost no time in putting the law into effect. The following appeared in the New York Daily Tribune of Monday, 19 March 1849: Hereafter, when a letter exceeds an ounce in weight, but does not exceed two ounces, it will be rated with four "" 9 Statutes at Large 379. charges of single postage; when it exceeds two ounces, but does not exceed three, it will be rated with six charges of single postage, and so on, there being a single postage on the first half ounce, a double charge for the first ounce, and two additional charges for each succeeding ounce, or frac- tion of an ounce, beyond the first ounce. This is ordered in virtue of the Act of Congress approved March 3, 1849. J Collamer, P.M. GENERAL P.O. Department, March 15, 1849. Thus, the blunder in negotiating Article IV of the treaty saddled all of the United States with the British progression, domestic letters as well as those between the United States and Great Britain, under the treaty. The American Almanac for 1850 duly shows the do- mestic progression as follows: A letter over half an ounce in weight, but not exceeding an ounce, is rated with two charges of single postage; over one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, with four charges. 36 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Thus, on the following sailings and arrivals, a triple rate was possible: TABLE 7.—Cunard and Ocean Line Sailings Arrival date, U.S. Ship Port Departure date, U.S. 1849 Cunard Line 1849 9 Mar. Niagara Boston America New York Ocean Line 21 Feb. 7 Mar. Hermann New York 20 Feb. Article IX of the Articles of Execution for carry- ing the treaty into effect made the British progression apply to all mail exchanged under the treaty. Once this had been firmly established by treaty, Congress was able to revert to the former progression for do- mestic mail, and did so in the act of 3 March 1851. Optional Prepayment The joint resolution of Congress of 15 June 1844 authorized the postmaster general to make agreements with foreign countries in such a way that the entire postage could be paid where the letter was mailed or received. This was taken to mean that United States policy for postal agreements with foreign countries must provide for optional prepayment. Therefore, all postal conventions made by the United States during the period here considered provided for optional pre- payment, at least, for the international rate. Transit rates under these agreements often required part pay- ments or full prepayment of the entire postage. Coupled with the provision for optional prepay- ment in Article III of the United States-British treaty was the clause, "It shall, however, not be permitted to pay less than the whole combined rate." Regulations issued during the life of the treaty were usually care- ful to point out to postmasters and to the public some- thing similar to the following, found in the 1859 regulations: "If anything less than the whole is pre- paid, no account is taken of it, and it is entirely lost to the sender." This provision was evidently made to prevent the public from making partial payments which would be very difficult and expensive for the exchange offices to handle in their accounting. But what was to happen when the local office in which a letter was mailed made an error and charged a person who presented it in good faith less than the whole postage? When the exchange office discovered such an error, was the person who had mailed the letter and paid the amount demanded by the local office to suffer the loss of his prepayment? The treaty seemed to say so. The Articles of Execution, however, provided an "escape" clause. Article XVII states: If, in checking the mails transmitted to the respective offices of exchange, the amount of postage of any of the articles shall be found to differ from that entered in the letter-bill by the dispatching office, such articles shall be checked by 2 officers, and the corrected amount, which is entered by them on the verification side of the letter- bill, shall be accepted as the true amount. Figure 17 illustrates a cover that exemplifies Article XVII. It was accepted by the Liverpool office as a letter weighing not over one ounce and, accordingly, was prepaid by a pair of ls. stamps. When the letter arrived at the exchange office, it was found to weigh over one ounce. It was marked ABOVE 1 oz., the / being filled in in manuscript. A credit of 100 was given for the two rates prepaid (see 10/CENTS marking), and a debit was made for the two rates unpaid (see 3 8 /CENTS marking). At this point there are two possible explana- tions of the remaining markings. One explanation is that two officers of the Liverpool office examined and corrected the letter-bill on its verification side. They then marked the cover in manu- script Paid 24 [pence]/Un[paid] 24 [pence] for the two rates accepted and the two rates considered unpaid. The two officers then placed their initials on the letter, RIL under the o of oz. and IW at the top of the bracket before Paid 24. The letter was then forwarded to Boston by the R.M.S. Cambria, which arrived there on 14 November 1851. A confused Boston office charged only 240 instead of the 480 to which, by this procedure, it was entitled. The other explanation, suggested by the late Mau- rice C. Blake, is that after marking the letter with a credit of 100 and a debit of 380, two officers of the Liverpool exchange office corrected the letter-bill and forwarded the letter to Boston. The Boston office marked the letter in manuscript Paid 24/ Un[paid]24, and the two officers who examined the letter and the letter-bill marked their initials upon the letter. Boston then marked the cover for a collection of 240. Regardless of which of these explanations may be correct, it is agreed that the letter was rated under the provision stated in Article XVII of the Articles of Execution, quoted above. If the scarcity of covers of this kind is an indication, the exchange offices used the procedure sparingly. NUMBER 6 37 ^ LSi > "&~ *5L~V.^C &# W ?<&. <2^.^r %tm- £N^ FIGURE 17.—COVER, from Liverpool to Providence, Rhode Island, 1851. The Packet Rate Postmaster General Cave Johnson felt that the only leverage of importance held by the United States in bargaining with the British was the transit of the Brit- ish mails between Boston and Canada. In his original instructions to Major Hobbie, he pointed out: "The terms upon which the Canadian mails are now trans- ported through the United States may be made the basis of any further agreement with the British Post Office." 27 Bancroft used the transit of Canadian mails to "bargain" for a lower packet rate, but in so doing, he made an additional concession to the British. Clanricarde had proposed a sea rate of 10d.; Ban- croft thought it ought to be 7d. At this point negotia- tions were deadlocked, but the impasse was broken by a British proposal of an 8d. packet rate if the United States would agree to Article V and the application of the uniform 50 inland postage to Article IX as the transit rate for Canadian mails. Bancroft explained his acceptance of these terms in his dispatch to Buchanan of 15 December 1848: 28 I did not think I should be justified in refusing to take the Canada mails across our Territory at the Uniform 27Senate Executive Document 25, 30 Cong., 2 sess., serial 531, p. 7. 28 Dept. of State, Treaties, p. 498. inland rate established by Article II. It seemed to me wise to treat our Canadian neighbors liberally: A special Act of Congress on the subject of mails in transit to Canada, favors such a policy: the concession of a sea rate of Eight pence was coupled with my assent to this Fifth Article. Thus the closed-mail transit rate for Canadian mails became 12^40 per ounce (2 x 50, plus 25 percent). Bancroft could have bargained for further concessions from the British. Cave Johnson thought he should have done so, as did his successors until 1857. Had Bancroft examined Article LI I of die Anglo-French treaty of 3 April 1843, he would have discovered that France was at that time paying Britain 160 per ounce for transit of mails between Boston and Canada, a service performed entirely by the United States. Transit Correspondence British Open Mail In negotiating Articles XI and XII of the treaty, Bancroft ignored that part of the joint resolution of Congress of 15 June 1844 which pointed to optional prepayment as the United States' policy in making postal agreements with foreign countries. Article XI specifically provided for part payment of postage, a procedure not designed to satisfy American commer- 38 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY cial interests. Although split rates were commonly used by the British Post Office, they had not previously had the added complication of rate variation because of the nationality of the conveying packet. In practice, this procedure proved to be confusing to the post offices in the colonies and in foreign countries. The usual procedure used by the British in setting rates to foreign countries for mail passing through Eng- land was to add the transit postages to and from Bri- tain to the international rate. Clanricarde, accordingly, proposed that the current transit postages to and from colonies and foreign countries be added to the 24/£/zi+*^~ frCJt* FIGURE 19.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Paris, 1853. sea postage on letters to and from France, via England, by American packet.27 Thus, over a year and a half after the fact, the United States Post Office learned of these arrangements between Britain and France. On 1 May 1853 28 the Count de Sartiges also wrote the Department explaining that there was only a 60, not a 160, difference in the American and British packet rates. He further explained that the difference was the result of the lowering of the sea postage to 100 on British packet letters. In his annual report for 1854 Postmaster General Campbell reviewed the situation for Congress. The British postmaster general took exception to certain statements made by Mr. Campbell. He stated that it was inconsistent on the part of the United States to complain that the British government enabled French subjects to receive their American letters at a sea rate of 100, while the United States demanded 160 from its own citizens for a like service by United States packets; and at the same time to complain that the British charges were too high.20 In his annual report for 1855 Postmaster General Campbell answered the British postmaster general: 30 It is sufficient answer to say that the only controversy has been with reference to a reduction of the British transit postage, that the sea postage has not been a point of dis- pute, and that were our reasonable demands for a reduc- tion of the transit postage acceded to, the reduction of die sea postage by the United States lines would follow of course, since the United States and French mails would then be treated as closed mails, and all letters between the two countries passing through England would be trans- mitted at a uniform rate of postage. Citing Mr. Bancroft's memorandum to Maberly, the British pointed out that the demand by the United States for a reduction of the transit rate to France was "clearly in contradiction to the spirit of the convention of December, 1848, and to the basis on which it was negotiated . . ."31 The memorandum clearly pre- cluded a contest of the transit rates. It was thus that both parties rested their cases until the matter was settled by the signing of the Anglo-French convention of 24 September 1856. ' Ibid. ' Ibid. Annual Report of the Postmaster General, 1855, p. 18. 30 Ibid. 31 Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 756, p. 42 (Lord Clarendon to Mr. Ingersoll). 48 Covers Figure 20 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Paris. It bears a New York postmaster's Provisional 50 stamp, which paid the letter to Boston, a distance of under 300 miles. The New York office canceled the stamp with a square grid, and applied a PAID in arc marking as well as a NEW YORK/5 CTS/15 DEC marking, all of which are in red. On this date (15 December 1846) the mails were made up in New York for the sailing on the following day from Boston of R.M.S. Caledonia, as in indicated by the endorse- ment. The letter was sent through Liverpool to the London office, which applied the COLONIES/&c. ART. 13 marking (see B of Figure 18), and forwarded the letter to the French office at Boulogne. By Article XXXII32 of the Anglo-French convention of 1843, French territorial (inland) postage was set according to the distance in a straight line between the point at which the letter entered France and its destination. This letter is rated for a collection of 15 decimes, 10 decimes of which were paid to Great Britain under Article 13 of the Articles in the Accounts, and 5 demi- mes were for French territorial postage. Figure 21 illustrates a cover posted in Boston, ad- dressed to Paris. It is endorsed "per Steamer 'America' from Boston to Liverpool/March 6, 1850." The letter bears a 10 carrier stamp of the Boston Penny Post (Scott no. 3LB1), which paid the letter to the Boston post 32 Hertslet, Commercial Treaties, vol. 6, p. 357. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY office, and a 50 stamp of the 1847 issue, which paid the United States-British treaty's open-mail rate by British packet for a letter not exceeding one half ounce. The letter was forwarded from Boston by R.M.S. America on 6 March, as the endorsement indicates, and arrived in Liverpool on 19 March 1850, whence it was sent to the London office. The London office applied marking B of Figure 18 and a packet marking on the reverse (not shown), and sent it to the French office at Calais. That office applied a double-circle 2ANGL.2/CALAIS/2O/MARS/5 0 marking and rated the letter for a double-rate collection of 30 decimes. This collection was for a letter that weighed over 7 J/2 but not over 15 grams. Of the 30 decimes, 20 paid the British for sea and British transit postage (includ- ing channel transit), and 10 decimes paid the French inland postage. Figure 22 presents a cover posted in New Orleans on 25 January 1851, addressed to Paris. This letter weigh- ed over one half but not over one ounce, and was prepaid 420 (2X210) to be sent from New York by American packet. This 210 single rate represented 160 for sea postage and 50 for United States inland post- age. The letter was sent from New York on 5 February 1851 by the U.S.M. steamer Arctic of the Collins line, which arrived in Liverpool on 16 February, whence it was sent to the London office. The London office marked it with B of Figure 18, and sent it on 17 February to the French office at Calais (London marking on the reverse). The Calais office marked it with a 2 ANGL. 2/CALAIS/is FEVR./SI marking and ,hV ..■■ y FIGURE 20.—COVER, from New York to Paris, 1846. (Courtesy of J. David Baker) NUMBER 6 49 I / ttUuJ l""——"""WBffm " / f/?* , h^s> 0 U i i • f // / '. +& // y -y- r t? r* £- £■ '-. r r3> -r r; FIGURE 24.—COVER, from Charlottesville, Va., to Paris, 1851. (Photograph by Smithsonian) ■& /4J& * V ^^h? S"s?s?* y S* *jjp* sjg. ^^ FIGURE 25.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France, 1856. 52 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY was forwarded through the London office to the travel- ing office, Calais to Paris, arriving there on the same day, and it bears a marking similar to M in Figure 18 with the date of 23 June 1856. It is marked for a single-rate collection of 13 decimes, established by the decree of 19 November 1851, effective 1 December 1851, for letters conveyed by British packets. Figure 26 illustrates a cover posted in Le Havre on 14 March 1855, addressed to New York. It is en- dorsed "pr str. Asia/via Calais," probably so that it would not be held for a Havre line steamer. Prepay- ment to the United States frontier of 130 centimes (13 decimes) was made by an 80-a 40-, and two 5-centimes imperforate "Empire" stamps. It was sent in closed mail through England, and bears no British marking. The Boston office marked it for a collection of 50. Figure 27 presents a cover posted in New Orleans on 1 November 1856, addressed to Nantes. It is en- dorsed "Steamer/Atlantic" and is prepaid 210 by a strip of four 50 stamps issued in 1856, and a 10 plate II stamp (Scott no. 12 and no. 7, respectively). The New York American packet marking bears the date of 8 November (1856), and, as the indorsement indicates, the U.S.M. steamer Atlantic of the Collins line sailed from New York on that day. The marking of the traveling office, Calais to Paris (L of Figure 18), shows the date of 21 November 1856. The same office also marked the letter for a single-rate collection of 8 decimes. Figure 28 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 25 July 1855, addressed to Baltimore. It is prepaid by a single 80-centimes imperforate Empire stamp. It bears no French exchange-office marking, and, evi- dently in error, was marked with a small boxed P.P. Similar covers by American packet bear a boxed PD marking. While PD means "paid to destination,", the United States frontier must have been considered "destination," for covers from France conveyed by British packets usually have this marking. It is not unlikely that, in carrying out M. Thayer's instructions for marking letters under the provisional agreement, P.P. signified port paye partiellement, ("postage paid for part of the transit"). The stamp is canceled with a roller cancellation, and there are no markings on the reverse of the cover. The 2 I/N. YORK AM. PKT marking is in black and shows the date of 8 August (1855). On that date U.S.M. steamer Atlantic of the Collins line arrived in New York with a closed mail from France in which this cover was included. The 27 in the New York marking indicates that 210 were to be collected from the addressee in Baltimore. FIGURE 26.—COVER, from Le Havre to New York, 1855. NUMBER 6 53 2 y ^ ' 2 FIGURE 27.—COVER, from New Orleans to Nantes, 1856. (Arthur E. Beane, Jr., collection) ftUdd J/t^ z^^c /fo^/yV ■C*J sH*t^'fe%4€s\ FIGURE 28.—COVER, from Paris to Baltimore, Maryland, 1855. 54 Mails Direct to France The French Bid for a Transatlantic Service Early in the year of 1847 the French firm of Herout et de Handel was awarded a subsidy by the French government to operate a line of steam packets between Havre and New York. For this purpose, the firm was to use four converted French steam frigates which were released from the French navy. Although these ships were termed "frigates," they were actually in the nature of supply ships rather than full-fledged vessels of war. The first sailings of the line were advertised in New York in the Shipping and Commercial List and Prices Current on 16 June 1847, under the name of the Transatlantic General Steam Packet Company, and in the Journal du Havre in France on 28 May 1847.33 Although Havre was to be the terminus of the line, the bassin de la Floride could not accommodate vessels with so great a draught until it was dredged,34 and sailings were actually made from Cherbourg. Havre continued, however, to be advertised as the port, and freight, mail, and passengers were transshipped from Havre to Cherbourg. The following is an annotated list of the sailings of the line: 35 Union, Captain Hebert, 1st voyage (formerly French frigate Canada) : From France Sailed from Cherbourg 22 June 1847; freight and mail were transshipped from Havre to Cherbourg in the Calibri (4 voyages). Arrived in New York 8 July 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 24 July 1847. Arrived in Havre 7 August 1847; did not enter port; cargo was discharged by the Colibri. Arrived in Cherbourg 10 August 1847. Philadelphie, Captain Besson, 2nd voyage (formerly French frigate Christophe Colomb) : From France Sailed from Cherbourg 15 July 1847; freight, mail, and passengers transshipped from Havre by Commerce-de-Lille (2 voyages), 3,1 Raymond Rousselin, L'Acheminement des correspond- ances entre Le Havre et les pays d'outre-mer, p. 75. 3i Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 52. 35 Rousselin, Correspondances entre Le Havre et les pays d'outre-mer, pp. 77-79. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Courrier (1 voyage); passengers by the Finistere (1 voyage). Arrived in New York 2 August 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 15 August 1847. Arrived at Cherbourg 1 September 1847. Missouri, Captain Morin, 3rd voyage (formerly French frigate Ulloa) : From France Sailed from Cherbourg 31 July 1847; ran out of coal; put in at Halifax. Arrived in New York 21 August 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 31 August 1847. Arrived at Cherbourg 15 September 1847. New York, Captain Pacini, 4th voyage (formerly French frigate Darien) : From France Sailed from Cherbourg 15 August 1847. Arrived at New York 4 September 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 15 September 1847. Arrived at Cherbourg 18 October 1847. Missouri, 6th voyage: From France Sailed from Cherbourg 30 September 1847. Arrived in New York 19 October 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 25 October 1847. Arrived at Havre 11 November 1847. Philadelphie, 7th voyage: From France Sailed from Cherbourg 10 October 1847; ran out of coal; put in at Halifax 29 October. Arrived in New York 3 November 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 10 November 1847. Arrived at Havre 28 November 1847. New York, 8th voyage: From France Sailed from Havre 24 October 1847; ran out of coal; put in at Newport 12 November. Arrived in New York 14 November 1847. Returning Sailed from New York 25 November 1847. Arrived at Havre 12 December 1847. Union, 9th voyage: From France Sailed from Havre 24 November 1847; gales; put in at Cherbourg because of sea NUMBER 6 55 damage; remained there and did not sail again. Missouri, last voyage: From France Sailed from Havre 23 December 1847; ran out of coal; put in at Halifax on 13 January 1848. Arrived in New York 18 January 1848. Returning Sailed from New York 6 February 1848. Arrived at Havre 23 February 1848. Not only did the ships of this line frequently run out of coal, but they also clumsily caused a number of accidents in New York harbor, most of which resulted from the helmsmen's not knowing English and being unable to understand the orders of the pilots. So many jokes were directed at the line that Frenchmen who lived in New York were piqued. They organized a mass meeting to protest the jokes, but abandoned the effort when they learned about the poor quality of food served by the line. Albion relates an amusing incident that occurred when one of these ships put to sea with no table sugar on board.30 When the captain discovered the oversight at breakfast, he offered to put back for sugar if the passengers desired, "but it was too late. The passengers had already become sour. This sugar business broke up the line." The French government evidently de- spaired of the enterprise when it was announced early in 1848 that the company had incurred losses of £80,- 000.3T The postal administration, in circular 19, dated 18 January 1848, announced the temporary suspen- sion of the line's service.38 It was not revived. No cover actually conveyed by this line has been seen by the author. Such covers, however, are reported to bear a Le Havre marking which includes the ab- breviation PAQ. REG.39 One cover endorsed to the Philadelphie has been seen. This cover shows a New York marking dated 14 August (1847), the day before Philadelphie sailed. Unfortunately, the New York office forwarded it to Boston, whence it was conveyed to Liverpool by Cunarder Hibernia, which left Boston on 16 August, and according to Cunard records ar- rived in Liverpool on 28 August. Since the cover r10 Robert Greenhalgh Albion, Square Riggers on Schedule, p. 264. '"' Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 52. "8 Ibid., p. 53. S9 Rousselin, Correspondances entre Le Havre et les pays d'outre-mer, p. 79. 372r-645 O—.70—5 bears a red-orange British mark dated 2 8AU28, as well as a COLONIES/&c. ART. I 3 marking, there can be little doubt that it did not go by the Philadelphie. Mails by the New York-Havre Line When Edward Mills failed to raise sufficient capital to build the four steamships called for by the Ocean Steam Navigation Company's contract, he assigned half of it to Messrs. Fox and Livingston. The effective member of this firm was Mortimer Livingston, who, unlike Mills, had considerable experience in the ship- ping business. The firm of Fox and Livingston oper- ated the Union line of Havre sailing packets and con- tinued to do so until the early 1860s. Gibbs suggests that the letters U.S.M. emblazoned upon the paddle boxes of the steamers of this line stood for Union Steam Mail.40 The part of the contract assigned to Fox and Livingston related to a service between New York and Havre, touching at Cowes each way. The port of Cowes was on the northern tip of the Isle of Wight in the Southampton harbor complex. The assigned subsidy was in the amount of $150,000 for twelve round voyages per annum. Fox and Livingston organized the New York and Havre Steam Navigation Company which ordered two steamers of about 2,200 tons from Westervelt and McKay. The first of these, Franklin, was an improved version of Washington, while the second, Humboldt, was straight-stemmed and a reduced edition of the Collins line steamers.41 The service was opened by Franklin which sailed from New York on her maiden voyage on 5 October 1850. Humboldt followed on 6 May 1851. Thus, these two ships would augment the service of the Ocean line to England, making possible semimonthly sailings from New York for Southampton. When the Collins line service to Liverpool was opened in April 1850, the sailings of all the American lines were scheduled on Saturdays. As in the case of the Ocean line, the sub- sidy was divided by twelve and accounted for at $12,500 per voyage. Although the Havre line sailed with greater regularity than the Ocean line, some winter voyages were avoided, and it was not until 1853 that the full $150,000 was earned. Since the United States had no postal convention with France, United States inland and packet postages 10 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 97. 11 Ibid., p. 99. 56 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY had to be prepaid on letters sent and collected on letters received. Until 1 July 1851, the rates set by the act of 3 March 1845 prevailed in the United States. Since these 240, 290, 340 rates were effective for this service between 5 October 1850 and 1 July 1851, their pro- gression was according to the British scale, then oper- ative in the United States. On 1 July 1851, the above rates were superseded by the 200-per-half-ounce rate, effective from or to any point in the United States. The French private-ship rate of 30 centimes per 7/2 grams for letters posted in or addressed to the port of arrival or departure of the conveying ship, and of 60 centimes per 7/2 grams if posted or received in another part of France, had been in effect since 1849. These rates were prepaid or collected in France on direct mail to or from the United States until the United States-French treaty became effective on 1 April 1857. The rate by direct packet to France was cheaper than by American packet through England, almost as cheap as by British packet, and actually cheaper if addressed to Havre. For example, a letter that weighed 7 grams posted in New York and addressed to Paris would have incurred a total postage, if conveyed by the Cunard line, of 5^ in the United States and 13 decimes or about 260 in France for a total of 31^. If the letter had been conveyed by the Collins line, 210 would have been charged in the United States and 8 decimes, or 16(Z", in France for a total of 370. If conveyed by the Havre line the postage in the United States would have been 200, while the French would have collected 6 decimes, or 12(z", for a total of 320. Thus, there was only a one-cent differential be- tween the rate by British packet and the rate by the Havre line. For a letter that weighed 8 grams, however, the situation was entirely different. By British packet, 50 would be prepaid in the United States, while 26 decimes, or 520, would have been collected in France for a total postage of 570. By a Collins line packet, 210 would have been paid in the United States, while 16 decimes, or 320, would have been collected in France for a total postage of 53 cents. By the Havre line, 200 would have been paid in the United States, while 12 decimes, or 240, would have been collected in Paris, for a total of 440. If, in the latter case, the letter was addressed to Havre, the total postage would have been only 320, that is, 200 United States and 120 French postage. It is, therefore, evident that the American packet postage for letters above the weight of 7/2 grams, but not over half an ounce, were cheaper than by British packet, and the rate by the Havre line was cheaper than the American packet rate, via England. Since all transit postage was avoided on mail by the direct route to Havre, it would have been in the best interests of the Post Office Department to have aug- mented this service at every opportunity. There is evidence that such an opportunity did present itself, but the United States was thwarted in its attempt to secure direct-service rating on letters for France con- veyed to Southampton by the Bremen (Ocean) line by either Britain or France, or perhaps by both. While in Paris during the fall of 1850, Mr. Davis brought the matter to the attention of Mr. Lawrence. After a long conversation with M. Maurin, chief of the Bureau of Foreign Correspondence for France, Davis, on 24 September 1850 reported the following: 42 The mails for France, at New York, &c., by the Southampton steamers (Ocean line), are made up in the English bag. They used to be made up in a separate bag; the English very shrewdly got instructions at Washington to have them made up as at present, and the result is, Eng- land gets a transit and a sea-rate on all such letters. M. Maurin suggests that this may be remedied by fresh instructions from Washington to make up the bag sep- arately for France, and that France will take it directly from the steamer at Southampton, and, if England charges any postage, will discuss the matter with her. On 24 October 1850, Lawrence wrote Daniel Webster, secretary of state,43 that If the post office at New York, instead of mixing the French and English mails, (as I am told they do,) would put up the French mails by themselves, and instruct the mail-agent to put them on board the Havre steamer at Southhampton, there could be no just pretence for the English government to charge even a transit rate. It appears that the Post Office at New York did receive instructions from Washington to have the mail for France by the Bremen line made up in a separate bag and sent closed to Havre. On 7 February 1851, Lawrence again wrote Webster,44 I learn, indirectly, that, by an arrangement between the French and English governments, our closed mails to Havre via Southampton [italics added for emphasis] are to be exempted from the claim for postage by this [British] government. You will remember I alluded to this tax in my despatch No. 83 (quoted above). If my information is correct, one very just cause of complaint is removed. 12 Senate Executive Document 32, 32 Cong., 2 sess., serial 660, p. 15. 43 Ibid., p. 6. 11 Ibid., p. 20. NUMBER 6 57 Further official comment upon the matter has not been found. Mr. Lawrence must have had some infor- mation regarding the negotiation of the provisional agreement that culminated in the French circulaire 67 of 1 September 1851 and the decree of 19 Novem- ber 1851. The evidence of covers, however, indicates that the advantage of the direct rate was not extended to mail conveyed to Southampton by the Bremen (Ocean) line. The author has seen only seven covers addressed to France with markings whose dates indi- cate service to Southampton by the Ocean line. All of these covers show a collection in France of 8 or multiple of 8 decimes. Two of them were sent in the open mail through England and bear the marking shown as C or L in Figure 18. Four of the remaining five covers have the following characteristics: (1) markings whose dates indicate service by the Bremen (Ocean) line; (2) a prepayment of 210 per half ounce in the United States; (3) a Havre marking inscribed ETATS-UNIS PAQ.AM.A./LE HAVRE with date in center (see marking I of Figure 18); (4) a collection in France of 8 or multiple of 8 decimes; (5) no British marking on face or reverse of the cover. The absence of a British marking on these four covers leads to the conclusion that they were sent in a separate bag which was placed onboard a small English steamer at Southampton and sent directly to Havre.43 Perhaps this British service between South- ampton and Havre necessitated that the transit rate be charged. A cover in the Smithsonian collection, however, indicates that all such covers were not sent directly to Havre. This cover bears the frank of Senator Underwood and is addressed to "Hon Wm C Rives/ Envoy Extraordinary etc./Paris/France." It is illus- trated as Figure 29. The letter was posted on 21 May 1852 and bears no New York packet marking because that marking had not yet been introduced (earliest seen 4 September 1852). The Havre office applied marking I of Figure 18, with the date 6/MAI/5 2, which is obviously an error, since the letter was not posted until 21 May 1852. Evidently the postal clerk at Havre neglected to change the month in the marking from May to June. On the reverse of the cover is a blue SOUTHAMPTON/5 JU 5/1852 marking which con- firms the June date. The presence of this marking in- dicates that this letter was sent to the Southampton 14 This service is disclosed in a letter from R. Salles to the author. fcSS. FIGURE 29.—COVER, from Washington, D.C, to Paris, France, 1852. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 58 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY office, whence it was forwarded to Havre. It bears a double-rate manuscript due marking of 16 decimes. This letter was undoubtedly conveyed to Southampton by Washington of the Ocean line which sailed from New York on 22 May 1852. This is the only cover seen that bears marking / of Figure 18 and also a British marking. It has been observed that all of the covers noted bearing marking / of Figure 18 were conveyed to Southampton by the Bremen (Ocean) line. This ob- servation has also been made by ,M. Raymond Salles of Paris. Mr. Walter Hubbard of London has sub- mitted a list of eleven covers compiled by M. Salles, all of which bear marking J of Figure 18 and were conveyed to Southampton by either the Washington or Hermann. Of the five covers seen by the author addressed to France which bear marking / of Figure 18, three are stampless and two bear stamps. Figure 30 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans on 17 January 1856, addressed to Bordeaux. The cover itself is a 30 stamped envelope and is additionally franked with a 120 and a pair of the 30 stamps of the 1851 issue. The New York American packet marking bears the date of 26 January (1856), and on that date Hermann of the Ocean line sailed from New York. The cover bears no British marking. The Havre marking (7 of Figure 18) is dated 12/JANV./56, which is obviously an error. As in the cover shown in Figure 29, the clerk evidently neglected to change the month in the marking from January to February. The cover is marked for a double-rate col- lection of 16 decimes. A cover in the collection of Mr. Lester L. Downing bears a marking as in I of Figure 18. This is a printed circular that was posted in New Orleans on 3 July 1855, prepaid by a pair of 10 type IV stamps of the 1851 issue, addressed to Belgium. It bears no New York or British marking. Marking I of Figure 18 is dated 31 July 1855. Covers by the New York-Havre Line Covers showing direct service between New York and Havre by the ships of the Havre line prior to the United States-French convention appear to be scarce. Although such covers to France having the United States postage prepaid by stamps are much sought after, they seldom appear in auction sales. Covers showing the 240, 290, 340 rates of 1845 are rarely seen. There were only six sailings from New York and four sailings from Havre by the Havre line steamers prior to 1 July 1851 (Table 9). Figure 31 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 30 December 1850, addressed to Georgetown, D.C, and endorsed "per steamer Franklin/via Havre." On the reverse is a manuscript 6 which indicates that 6 decimes were prepaid. It was the custom of the French, FIGURE 30.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France, 1856. (Walter Hubbard collection) NUMBER 6 59 TABLE 9.—Havre Line Sailings Arrival Departure Date, Ship Date, N.Y. N.Y. 1850 1850 Franklin 5 Oct. 1850 17 Nov. 1850 Franklin 5 Dec. 1850 17 Jan. 1851 Franklin 5 Apr. 1851 Humboldt 3 May 1851 19 May 1851 Franklin 31 May 1851 17 June 1851 Humboldt 28 June 1851 at that time, to indicate prepayments on the reverse and amounts due on the face of letters. Six decimes was the private-ship-beyond-the-port rate for a letter that did not weigh over lx/i grams. Also on the re- verse is a marking of the maritime office at Havre, similar to H of Figure 18, but inscribed HAVRE in- stead of LE HAVRE, bearing the date of 31 December 1850. This marking (with HAVRE or LE HAVRE) is characteristic of all private-ship- or direct-mail-service covers forwarded from the Havre office. On the face is a boxed P.P. marking in red, which means port paye, and indicates that the French postage was paid. The large circular NEW-YORK/SHIP/JAN I7/29CTS black marking shows that 290 were to be collected at a destination under 300 miles from New York: 17 Jan- uary (1851) was the date Franklin arrived in New York, terminating her second round voyage. Covers showing direct service by the Havre line after 1 July 1851 went under the 200-per-half-ounce rate, effective on that date, to or from any part of the United States. The vessels of the Havre line sailed only once a month, with some irregularity during the win- ter. For the fiscal year of 1852-53, as reported by the auditor of the treasury for the Post Office Depart- ment,46 the value of the postage on all mail conveyed from New York to Havre by this line was only $9,018.93, despite the efforts of the Post Office Depart- ment to persuade the public to favor the American lines. Few covers have been seen which bear a prepay- ment of 200. Even when letters were endorsed to be sent by this line or its ships, the usual prepayment was 210, since, by paying that amount, the letter could be sent by the next Collins line steamer if the Havre line ship failed to sail. Figure 32 illustrates a very attractive Havre line cover. It bears a strip of three of the 30 1851 stamps in the orange-brown shade and a single 120 stamp. The 30 stamps are of a rich color and are particu- larly attractive because they are canceled with a red grid. The letter was posted in New York, addressed to Lyon. It bears a red New York town postmark dated 23 August (1851), and on that date Humboldt sailed from New York. It should be noted that the New York American packet marking did not make its appearance until mid-1852. Characteristic of Havre line covers is a double circle OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE marking (G of Figure 18) applied in red-orange, with date in center, in this case 4/SEPT./SI. It is marked 48 U.S., Congress, House, Executive Document 1, 33rd Cong., 1st sess., serial 692, p. 734. ■ r , / » - <■}/!-> * ~~7^nj> 'ys-v f&hufc 1 \ S 17 F , 17) / '/ FIGURE 31.—COVER, from Paris to Georgetown, D.C, 1850. 60 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 32.—COVER, from New York to Lyons, France, 1851. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) for a collection of the single beyond-the-port rate of 6 decimes, indicated by a 6 in manuscript. Figure 33 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Lyons, France, and endorsed "Pr. Hum- boldt." It is prepaid 200 by a 120, two 30, and a pair of 10 stamps of the 1851 issue. The New York mark- ing bears the date of 13 December and on 13 December 1851, the Humboldt of the Havre line sailed from New York. The OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE marking is faintly applied, its date not being legible. This letter weighed over 7 J/2 grams and required a double-rate collection of 12 decimes. Covers by the Havre line actually pre- paid with 200 are seldom seen. Figure 34 illustrates a cover posted in New Orleans on 28 December 1855, addressed to Nantes. It is en- dorsed to Pacific of the Collins line, and is prepaid 210 by a pair of 100 type III stamps and a 10 type IV stamp of the 1851 issue. Since Pacific sailed from New York on 5 January 1856, this letter evidently arrived too late to be included in its mail. It was therefore sent by the next American packet to sail, which was Arago of the Havre line. As is indicated by the New York packet marking, this vessel sailed from New York on 12 January 1856. The cover bears the characteristic OUTRE-MER/LE HAVRE marking (G of Figure 18) and shows a single rate collection of 6 decimes. Figure 35 illustrates a cover from tbe Toppan- Carpenter correspondence. It was posted in Phila- delphia on 8 April 1853, addressed to Paris. It is pre- paid 210 by a strip of three of the 30 stamps and a single 120 stamp of the 1851 issue. It is endorsed "Pr Steamer Franklin/April 9," and the American packet marking bears the same date. An orange-red OUTRE- MER/LE HAVRE marking shows the date of 21 April 1853, while a Paris receiving mark on the reverse indi- cates it arrived at its destination on the same day. There is a manuscript marking on the face that re- sembles a W. This marking has been noted on some covers whose weight was in excess of 7}4 grams. The Havre office, therefore, rated it for a collection of double the beyond-the-port postage of 6 decimes. This is shown on the face of the cover by a 12 in manuscript. Figure 36 shows a letter posted in Sharon Springs, New York, on 29 July 1853, addressed to Paris. It is suspected that it was presented to the post office clerk with 240 in stamps affixed to the letter, that is, a strip of six and two single 30 stamps. The post office clerk determined that it weighed over half an ounce and NUMBER 6 61 FIGURE 33.—COVER, fromNew York to Lyons, France, 1851. (Walter Hubbard collection) FIGURE 34.—COVER, from New Orleans to Nantes, 1855. (Arthur E. Beane, Jr., collection) SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 35.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Paris, 1853. (From the Toppan-Carpenter correspondence) thus would require two rates. It must have been known that Franklin of the Havre line would sail from New York on the following day, and that the rate by this route was 200 for a single rate. Since the required postage amounted to 40$, the person who mailed the letter evidently paid the additional 16^ in cash. The clerk, not finding room for the additional stamps, on the face of die cover, marked it PAID/40 and indicated the additional payment by a lead pencil 16. Then, to clarify the matter, he marked in red ink, Stamps 24/Cash 16/404. The letter left New York on the Franklin on 30 July, as is indicated by the New York packet mark, and arrived at Havre on 11 August 1853. The Havre office rated it as a letter weighing over 15 but not over 221/% grams, and marked it for a collection of 18 decimes. Although the condition of this cover leaves much to be desired, it is undoubtedly unique, not because of the triple-rate collection (the Smithsonian collection con- tains a cover showing 18 decimes due), but because the postage is part-paid by stamps. Figure 37 presents a cover posted in Havre, ad- dressed to New York. It is endorsed to Fulton of the Havre line which sailed from Havre on 22 October and arrived in New York on 9 November 1856, as is indicated by the BUREAU MARITIME/LE HAVRE and 2O/N. YORK AM. PKT markings, respectively. The letter must have weighed over 7/2 but not over 15 grams, requiring a prepayment of double the 3-decimes in- the-port rate, since it is franked with a 40- and a 20- centime imperforate Empire stamp. Twenty cents were collected from the addressee in New York. The Three-Months' Period 1 January 1857-1 April 1857 As early as May 1853, the British and the French were attempting to negotiate a new postal convention. Lord Clarendon, at that time, suggested to Mr. J. R. Ingersoll, United States minister at London that the United States press France to accept British proposals for a reduction of rates on all mail between Great Britain and France, rather than persist in its demand that the British reduce their transit rate to France to 6d. per ounce.47 By 1854, the British and the French had agreed upon new rates for letters passing between the two countries only, that is, new international rates. It was decided that these rates should be placed in force immediately without waiting for the completion of the negotiation of the remainder of the convention. On 12 December 1854, additional articles to the con- vention of 1843, which were to become effective on 1 January 1855, were signed at Paris.48 By these articles, a Senate Executive Document 73, 33 Cong., 2 sess., serial 756, p. 42. *8 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 44, pp. 43-45. NUMBER 6 63 Bs&3§r3> Sy ■ •< laBoeg^ '"i!^r*r3CEra: ^ f^s§f ,r.y . 11 * ■■> #f/y?/?^' FIGURE 36.—COVER, from Sharon Springs, N.Y., to Paris, France, 1853. T9 ^-r & €&&&&& / *. e- r r \ ' 1 ( \ *\ ' %| R ft V FIGURE 37.—COVER, from Havre to New York, 1856. 64 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY the international rate upon prepaid letters was reduced from 5d. in Great Britain and 50 centimes in France to 4d. in Great Britain and 40 centimes in France for single-rate letters of one-fourth ounce (British) or 7y2 grams (French). Unpaid letters, however, were to be charged with double the prepaid rates. Since these articles altered only the international rates, tran- sit mail was unaffected, and there was no change in rates charged on mail between the United States and France. The new Anglo-French convention was finally com- pleted and signed at Paris on 24 September 1856, ratifications were exchanged on 19 November, and the treaty became effective on 1 January 1857.49 Articles significant in their application to mail between the United States and France are summarized as follows: XIII. Incorporated into the convention the international rates established by the additional articles to the 1843 convention of 12 December 1854. XIV. The French Post Office paid the British Post Office, for letters exchanged in ordinary mail, 1 franc per ounce for paid letters and 2 francs per ounce for unpaid letters. XVII. Registered letters could be sent by the inhabitants of either country. Postage had to be prepaid and was double that of ordinary letters. XX. Each country had the right of conveyance of closed mails over the territory of the other. XXI. The French Office paid the British Office, for transit through England, 40 centimes per 30 grams of letters in closed mails. XXII. The French Office paid the British Office, for sea conveyance, 1 franc, 20 centimes per 30 grams of letters in closed mails. XXVII. Made the conditions set forth in Articles XXI and XXII apply to mail originating in or addressed to colonies and countries beyond the sea. XXVIII. Set the letter rate for transit through France on mail passing through the Isthmus of Suez, as follows: "[that it] shall not in any case exceed 3d. per quarter of an ounce, British, or fraction of a quarter of an ounce, British." XXXI. The two offices were to determine by mutual con- sent the conditions upon which open mail was to be exchanged between colonies and countries beyond the sea and between the two countries. Detailed regulations for the execution of the con- vention were signed at Paris on 27 October 1856 50 and became effective with the convention on 1 Jan- "Ibid., pp. 195-224. 5°Ibid., vol. 52, pp. 1123-1141. uary 1857. Following is an excerpt from a significant article of these regulations: XXXII. Ordinary unpaid letters "charged with transit or sea rates, which shall be exchanged in ordinary mails between the Post Office of France and the Post Office of Great Britain, shall receive, in some conspicuous part of the address, the impression in black ink of a stamp intended to show the rate at which the dispatching office shall have delivered those letters and printed papers to the other office." Illustrated 51 in the article were eleven marks to be used by the French Post Office and seven similar marks for use by the British Post Office on letters exchanged. Marks to be used on printed papers were also illustrated. Each of these marks had an outer frame line of a distinctive and different shape. All were divided horizontally by double lines at about the cen- ter, and in the upper portion of each were the letters F.R. (on those for use by the French Office) or G.B. (on those to be used by the British Office). Each bore in its lower portion an amount expressed in French currency showing the rate per 30 grams or per ounce at which the mail containing the letter had been dis- patched. Collectors have variously called these "cur- rency marks," "partitioned marks," or "tray marks." It has been suggested that the reason for having a mark of distinctive shape for each rate was to enable postal clerks to recognize the rate without reading what was written on the mark. This undoubtedly speeded the sorting of and accounting for mail, espe- cially in those colonies and countries where native clerks did not ordinarily read English or French.52 Only two of these markings were used on mail from the United States regularly during this three-month period and occasionally thereafter on letters missent or intentionally forwarded in the open mail. To letters charged with transit postage only, that is, those con- veyed by American packet, the British Post Office ap- plied a marking showing G.B. at top and 40c at bot- tom (see marking O of Figure 18). To letters charged with both transit and sea postage, that is, those con- veyed by British packet, the British Post Office ap- plied a marking bearing G.B. at top and lf 60c at bottom (see marking: P of Figure 18). 01 Ibid., pp. 1133-1135. [See also George E. Hargest, "Un- paid and Part-Paid Rates Between the United States and France," Postal History Journal 7, 1 (June 1963) : 4-6, for reproduction of these markings.] D2 W. Skrine, and F. W. Webb, "Anglo-French Currency Handstamps, 1857-75," The Philatelist 27, 9 (June 1961): 222. NUMBER 6 65 Mail from France to the United States had to be prepaid to the United States frontier when conveyed by British packet, or to the British port of embarkation when conveyed by American packet. In either case postage was prepaid through Great Britain, and un- paid currency stamps were, therefore, not applied. Article XXI of the detailed regulations provided that ordinary mails passing through Great Britain, to or from France and Algeria and countries enumerated in an appended Table I, would be exchanged between the post offices of the two countries in accordance with conditions set forth in that table. For single-rate (7^4 grams) letters from or to the United States, Table I prescribed that the amount to be collected in France and Algeria on unpaid letters received or on prepaid letters sent was to be 80 centimes when conveyance was by British packet, and 50 centimes when the letter was conveyed by American packet. Since the post offices of the two countries were able, under Article XXXI of the treaty, to establish by mu- tual consent the rates to be used for the exchange of open mail, it would appear that they had agreed to apply the rates set forth in Articles XXI and XXII of the treaty to open mail as well as to closed mail. Be- cause mail originating in France, addressed to the United States, was closed through England, the appli- cation of the closed-mail rates to open mail originating in the United States and addressed to France contin- ued the practice established by the provisional agree- ment and the decree rates established in 1851. Table 10 shows the method by which the British and French Post Offices arrived at the amounts of postage to be prepaid or collected in France on letters between the United States and France, via England. TABLE 10.— United States and French Postal Rates via England (1 January-1 April 1857) Rate per 7% grams British Packet American Packet Article XXI—Transit postage of 40 centimes per 30 grams. Single rate, 10c 10c \ thereof Article XXII—Sea postage of 1 franc 20 centimes per 30 grams, single 30 40 40 rate, \ thereof French inland postage, single rate 80c 50c Prepaid or collected in France From 1850 the United States had been demanding that the British reduce their transit rate to France to 6d. per ounce. Although the Anglo-French conven- tion of 1856 reduced this transit rate to only 4d. per ounce, the United States did not avail itself of the reduction. By the effective date of the Anglo-French convention, 1 January, 1857, the United States and France were nearing agreement on a postal convention between the two countries, and it is suspected that they did not wish to make an interim arrangement for what they anticipated would be a very short period of time. By Article XLIV of the detailed regulations of the Anglo-French convention, provision was made for closed mail between the United States and France, via England. It would appear that the French negotiated this article with the United States-French convention in mind. Whatever the reason the United States may have had for delay, the rates of the new Anglo-French con- vention had a devastating effect upon American packet mail-service between the United States and France, via England. It will be noted in Table 10 that sea postage by British packet was only 30 centimes per 7/2 grams, or 60 in United States currency. The United States, however, continued to require a collection on American packet letters received, or a prepayment on American packet letters sent, of 210, which included a sea postage of 160. Thus, the rate by British packet was 100 lower than by American packet. It is small wonder that few people elected to send letters by American packet during this three-month period. The scarcity of covers showing American packet service, via England, during the three-month period may also be attributed to a decline in Collins line serv- ice. Arctic had been lost in 1854 and Pacific "went missing" in early 1856. Because it was believed that Pacific had struck an iceberg, the line's management decided to fit the remaining two ships with watertight compartments. For this purpose, Baltic was out of service from 6 February to 15 August 1857, while Atlantic went into drydock on 5 March and did not sail again until 11 April.53 Ever since 1855, the line had been using some chartered vessels which were definitely inferior to the original ships. Although the line continued to use Ericsson, it did not, at this time, charter additional ships, and its service was neces- sarily curtailed. During this period (from January to March) there were only five sailings by American pac- ™ Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, 11 Mar. 1857. 66 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY kets which conveyed mail via England. They are pre- sented in Table 11.C1 To the date of this writing, only five covers showing American packet service, via England, during this three-month period have been noted. Three of them bear stamps, two are stampless, and all five are by Collins line ships. Figure 38 illustrates a cover showing markings char- acteristic of American packet letters, via England, dur- ing the three-months period. Posted in New Orleans on 25 December 1856, addressed to Garonne, France, it was prepaid with 210 by a pair of 100 type II stamps and a 10 type II of the 1851 issue. The New York American packet mark bears the date of 3 January, the date Baltic sailed on the first voyage conveying mail to France under the rates of the new Anglo- French convention. On its reverse is a circular British marking applied in dark brown bearing the date of 17 January 1857, while on its face is a GB/400 currency mark applied in black ink by the London office, indi- cating that the letter was included in a mail dispatched to France charged only with transit postage of 40 centimes per 30 grams, bulk weight, of such mail. The French exchange office marking (see marking L of Figure 18) is that of the travelling office, Calais to Paris and reads ETATS-UNIS PAQ. AM./A. CALAIS D/IS/ JANV./5 7, meaning "From the United States by American packet through the abulant office from Calais, the mail being processed by a mail crew (bri- TABLE 11.—American Packet Sailings via England (7 January-1 April 1857) Arrival Date, New York Ship Departure Date, New York 1856/57 Collins Line 1857 25 Dec. Baltic 3 Jan. 13 Jan. Ericsson 17 Jan. 23 Jan. Atlantic 31 Jan. 6 Feb. Baltic Up a 14 Feb. Dns.b 5 Mar. Atlantic Up a 14 Mar. Dns.b 25 Feb. Ericsson Ocean Line 14 Mar. 20 Jan. Washington 21 Feb. a Sailing announced at New York. b Did not sail. "' Shipping and Commercial List, appropriate issues. gade) identified by the letter D." This cover is owned by Walter Hubbard of London, England, and is reproduced through his kindness. Figure 39 illustrates a cover showing dissimilarities in the British and French exchange office markings. Originating in New Orleans on 7 January 1857, ad- dressed to Bordeaux, this letter was prepaid 210 by seven 30 stamps of the 1851 issue, a strip of six (95 to 100L4) and a single (94L4). The New York packet mark is dated 17 January, indicating conveyance to Liverpool by Ericsson, then under charter to the Col- lins line. The London marking on the reverse is of the usual circular type applied in orange ink, and bears the date of 2 February. The French exchange office mark reads ANGL./AMB. CALAIS [?]/2/FEVR./S 7, and is in black ink. This marking was used on mail dispatched by British exchange offices to France without regard to the mail's origin (see marking N in Figure 18). This cover is owned by Mr. Tracy W. Simpson of Berkeley, California, and is reproduced with his kind permission. A third cover bearing 240 in stamps (30 overpaid) and markings identical with those shown on Figure 38 is in the collection of Dr. Robert de Wasserman of Brussels, Belgium. It is illustrated in Chronicle 39, April 1961. Covers showing British packet service during these three months are scarce. The Cunard line made six- teen voyages with mails rated under terms of the new 1856 Anglo-French convention. They are listed in Table 12. Since the United States was not a party to this convention, no change was made in the prepay- ment or collection of postage in this country. Those letters from the United States, addressed to France, that arrived at the London exchange office on or after 1 January 1857 were forwarded by that office to France under conditions and rates set forth in the new Anglo-French convention and its detailed regula- tions. Regular use of these conditions and rates on mail between the United States and France was terminated when the United States-French convention became ef- fective. While the rates of this convention came into operation on letters posted in either the United States or France on 1 April 1857, the effective date on let- ters received in each country is indefinite. Letters posted in New York on 1 April were rated and marked according to the United States-French convention by the New York exchange office and were dispatched on that same day by the Africa (see Table 12). Those posted in places remote from New York or Boston as late as 31 March, however, may not have arrived NUMBER 6 67 FIGURE 38/—COVER, from New Orleans to Garonne, France, 1856. (Walter Hubbard collection) FIGURE 39.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, 1857. (Tracy W. Simpson collection) at one of these exchange offices in time to catch the sailing of Europa from Boston on 8 April, or possibly that of Asia from New York on 15 April. The last sailing shown in Table 12 is based upon the latest cover noted at this time. It is possible that one showing a later date will be found. Markings characteristic of letters conveyed by Brit- ish packets during this three-month period are found on the cover illustrated in Figure 40. The letter was posted in New Orleans, addressed to Bordeaux, on 10 March 1857. It was forwarded from New York on 18 March 1857 by R.M.S. Persia, as is indicated by the date in the New York packet marking. Since Liverpool was not an exchange office for Anglo- French mail, the bags were sent directly to the Lon- don office. That office applied a GB/IF6 0C marking in black (see P in Figure 18) to the face of the cover and a marking on the reverse (not shown), and dis- patched it to the traveling office, Calais to Paris, which applied marking N of Figure 18 on 30 March 1857 and also marked the cover for a single-rate collection of 8 decimes. The letter is franked with a single 5^ imperforate stamp issued in 1856 (Scott no. 12). The New Orleans post office appears to have been well 68 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY TABLE 12.—Cunard Line Sailings (December 1856-April 1857) Departure Date, Liverpool Arrival Date, U.S. Ship Port Departure Arrival Date, U.S. Date, Liverpool 1957 3 Jan. 10 Jan. 17 Jan. 24 Jan. 31 Jan. 7 Feb. 14 Feb. 21 Feb. 28 Feb. 7 Mar. 14 Mar. 21 Mar. 28 Mar. 4 Apr. 1857 16 Jan. 24 Jan. 30 Jan. 6 Feb. 16 Feb. 22 Feb. 2 Mar. 6 Mar. 14 Mar. 24 Mar. 29 Mar. 4 Apr. 11 Apr. 18 Apr. Africa Asia Europa Niagara Asia America Persia Arabia Africa Canada Asia Niagara Persia America Africa Europa Asia Niagara Arabia New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York Boston New York 1856/57 1857 24 Dec. 6 Jan. 31 Dec. 13 Jan. 7 Jan. 20 Jan. 14 Jan. 27 Jan. 21 Jan. 3 Feb. 28 Jan. 11 Feb. 4 Feb. 17 Feb. 11 Feb. 24 Feb. 18 Feb. 3 Mar. 25 Feb. 10 Mar 4 Mar. 17 Mar 11 Mar. 24 Mar 18 Mar. 30 Mar 25 Mar. 7 Apr. 1 Apr. 14 Apr. 8 Apr. 21 Apr. NOTE. Sailings taken from incomplete records of the Cunard line by Lester L. Downing, com- pleted and confirmed by the author from appropriate issues of Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current. #*^ €^d^f (^fe^fc ^ V0y<3& CtUOe^ <&4affr&?*9 FIGURE 40.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, 1857. (Lester L. Downing collection) NUMBER 6 69 supplied with this stamp. It has been noted that more covers posted in New Orleans addressed to France during this three-month period are franked with 50 stamps than are franked with any other combination of stamps. This is not, however, intended to imply that such covers bearing a 5 4 stamp are not scarce. Covers from France addressed to the United States during this period are difficult to find. No cover show- ing a prepayment of 50 centimes in France and a col- lection of 210 in the United States has been seen by the author. Only two covers showing a prepayment of 80 centimes in France and a collection of 50 in the United States have been noted. These covers, how- ever, have been collected for their rates by only a few collectors and are not offered as such in auction sales. That they are scarce is not doubted, but it is not be- lieved they are as rare as is indicated by the preceding statement. Figure 41 illustrates a cover posted in Bordeaux on 25 March 1857, addressed to New York. It is franked with two 40-centimes imperforate Empire stamps. It is struck with a boxed P.P. marking indicating that post- age was "prepaid for some part of the distance beyond the territory of the dispatching office." 55 Since mail from France was closed through England there is no British marking. A circular BOSTON BR. PKT./S/APR/I I in black on the face of the cover indicates that 50 were to be collected in New York. The date of 11 April shows that it was conveyed by R.M.S. Nigara (see Table 12). 35 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 52, p. 1136. De- tailed regulations for the execution of the convention of 24 Sept. 1856, Article 34. Although this statement appears in the article for the first time, covers indicate that the marking was used to indicate a payment of postage for part of the distance when the Anglo-French provisional agreement be- came effective in 1851. / •'~v v 9 * M •Mra ^f/^fi />< < • 1 '?''■ - * ~ *m $S* >f" °^-s^#; /tf^S? Syyf*lC*)=HL/"'1M i u> ' FIGURE 45, FACE OF COVER (above), from Baltimore to Paris, 1860. REVERSE of same (below), redirected. Ch <& % H> %. '^J.^/: '< .-<- '7Z*. f % * y ". / ..' NUMBER 6 FIGURE 46.—COVER, from New Orleans to Bordeaux, France 1860. (Photograph by Smithsonian) yz> ? :» FIGURE 47.—COVER, from Highland, Illinois, to Neuchatel, Switzerland, 1860. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 82 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY /43.M h/£t+~ *^r~t~t+^r t_^£/&y£tU-. FIGURE 48.—COVER, from Boston to Rome, Italy, 1862. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) lar grid markings, this particular one was reserved for use on foreign mail.14 The Boston packet marking bears the date of 25 March (1862), and on this day the mails were made up at Boston for the sailing of R.M.S. Africa on the following day from New York. Because this ship was a British packet, the Boston office credited France with 240 (see Table 18). The letter arrived at the travelling office, Calais to Paris, on 8 April 1862, and diat office applied a marking in black similar to F of Figure 43 and a boxed P.D. marking similar to L of Figure 43, which indicated that the letter was paid to destination. In 1862 there was an additional 460-per- half-ounce rate to Rome by Prussian closed mail and a 280-per-half-ounce rate by Bremen-Hamburg mail, both of which paid the letter only to the Roman fron- tier. Only the 270-per-one-fourth-ounce rate by French mail paid the letter to destination. It has been observed that French mail letters bear a diagonal manuscript line that was applied at Rome, and was evidently in- tended to indicate that no additional postage was due. Figure 49 illustrates a cover addressed to a point beyond France to which the rate was 300. This cover was posted in New Orleans on 19 May 1858, addressed to Palermo (Sicily). It is prepaid by a strip of three of the 100 stamps of the 1857 issue (positions 2, 12, and 22RI), a combination of two type II and a type III 11 M. C. Blake and W. W. Davis, Postal Markings of Boston, Massachusetts, to 1890, marking 625, Plate 35, p. 133. stamp. The single-letter rate to the kingdom of the Two Sicilies by French mail was 300, prepayment compul- sory, from 1 April 1857 until January 1862, shortly after Sicily and Naples were incorporated into the kingdom of Italy, when the rate was reduced to 210, prepayment optional. The New York office forwarded this letter directly to Havre by Fulton of the New York- Havre Line, which sailed from New York on 29 May 1858. France was given credit for 180 by use of a manu- script marking in red ink (see Table 18). The cover bears markings characteristic of those by direct serv- ice, as in markings A and M of Figure 43, which were applied by the Havre office on 13 May 1858. On the reverse is a 20 GIU" 185 8 straight-line marking in magenta indicating that the letter arrived in Palermo on 20 June 1858. Covers between Sicily and the United States prior to Sicily's unification with the kingdom of Italy are seldom seen. Figure 50 presents a cover to a point beyond France to which the single French-mail rate was 330. This letter was posted in Boston, addressed to Norway, and was prepaid by a pair and single of the 100 type V, and a single of the 30 type II stamp of the 1857 issue. As on the cover illustrated in Figure 48, the stamps are can- celed with a grid with PAID in center. The Boston packet marking bears the date of 8 June (1860). On that date the mails were made up at Boston for the sailing of Glasgow of the Inman line from New York on the following day. Since the Inman line was under con- NUMBER 6 83 FIGURE 49.—COVER, from New Orleans to Palermo (Sicily), 1858. (Photograph by Smithsonian) FIGURE 50.—COVER, from Boston to Laurvig [Larvik], Norway, 1860. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 84 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY tract to the United States Post Office and, although the letter with marking F of Figure 43, then, discover- British-owned, considered an American packet, the ing that it had marked it for British service, super- Boston office gave France a credit of 240 (see Table imposed marking E over the marking F originally 18). The letter arrived at the travelling office, Calais applied. Marking L (Figure 43) was also applied, in- to Paris, on 23 June 1860. That office, in error, struck dicating that the letter was paid to destination. Chapter 5 The Prussian Closed-Mail Convention Shortly after the American Collins and Havre lines began to run in 1850, the Bremen closed mail (dis- cussed in Chapter 1) was sent only by these lines. Cunard line service to Germany was available only on letters sent in the British open mail, and much mail was sent by this route. The London office usually for- warded open mail addressed to the northern German states in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail, via Belgium, which was faster than the direct route from England to Cuxhaven or Bremerhaven. Mail addressed to the southern German states was usually sent through France. Although the route through Belgium was faster than the direct route, which was the route used for the Bremen closed mail, it was also more expensive, because of the high British and Belgium transit rates. These high rates were set by the Anglo-Prussian convention of 1846 and are presented in Table 2, Chapter 1. As with all British open mail, the burden of high transit charges fell upon the correspondent in the foreign country. Regardless of what the charges abroad might be, Americans paid only 50 for a letter conveyed by British packet, or 21 (^ when transatlantic service was by American packet. In this particular case, the Ger- mans either prepaid these high transit rates on letters posted in Germany, or the rates were collected from them upon delivery of letters posted in the United States. Prussia had good reason to seek a postal con- vention with the United States that would more equitably distribute postage costs between correspond- ents in the two countries. On 1 July 1850, a new posal convention between the states of Germany brought into existence the Ger- man-Austrian Postal Union, and greatly simplified and reduced rates between these countries. Prussia now worked for an agreement that would utilize the reduced rates, as well as make use of the Cunard line, and the Anglo-Prussian closed mail, via Belgium. Such a serv- ice would supersede the slower Bremen closed mail. By mid-1851 a closed mail agreement between the two countries which included the above features was all but complete. On 21 June 1851, Postmaster Gen- eral Nathan K. Hall wrote Secretary of State Daniel Webster: * Articles of agreement between this department and the post office of Prussia have been prepared, providing for the reciprocal receipt and delivery of letters and packets in closed mails between the United States and Prussia, to be conveyed through England; but their final execution has been postponed for several months, in the confident hope and expectation that the British government would finally yield to the reasonable demands of the contracting parties for a reduction in their transit postage, and thus facilitate the communication so much desired by either side. Mr. Lawrence, United States minister at London, addressed a note to Lord Palmerston on 8 August 1851, in which he explained: 2 by the German-Austrian convention which went into oper- ation on the first of July, 1850, it is understood that the rates of postage throughout Prussia, Austria, and indeed in most, if not all, the States of Germany, have been greatly reduced, and that it is represented that the high transit rate through England is the only obstacle in the way of rendering that convention available to parties correspond- ing between the United States and those countries. The British did indeed reduce the transit rate through a new postal convention with Prussia. Al- XU.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 32, 32nd Cong., 2nd sess., serial 660, p. 31. 3 Ibid., p. 34. 85 86 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY though Mr. Lawrence was not aware of it at the time he addressed the above note to Lord Palmerston, a new Anglo-Prussian convention was then in the process of negotiation. It was completed early in 1852, signed at London on 2 July, at Berlin on 7 July, and became effective on 1 August of that year.3 It established a reduced international rate between the two countries which was, by Articles II and III, also set for transit mail, via Belgium, to or from colonies or foreign coun- tries. The single-letter rate for the weight of one-half ounce (British), or of one zoll loth (Prussian), was set at 8d. (British) and 7 silbergroschen (Prussian). The rate was divided as shown in Table 19. TABLE 19.—Division of the British and Prussian Rates Postage Rate British penny Prussian silbergroschen British Belgian transit German 3H H 4 3 Total rate 8 7 The rates set by this convention were evidently ac- ceptable to the Prussian and United States post offices, for the United States-Prussian closed-mail convention was signed at Washington on 17 July and at Berlin on 26 August 1852.4 Prussia and the United States utilized provisions of both the United States-British and the new Anglo-Prussian conventions to complete the pend- ing agreement. Articles I, VIII, and IX of the United States-British treaty were used to fix the rate for sea postage. By Article I, sea postage was 8d., or 160 for a single letter of half an ounce; by Article VIII, the United States had the privilege of sending closed mails over British territory; and by Article IX, closed mails were paid for by the ounce at a rate determined by taking the postage of two single-letter rates plus 25 per- cent. Thus, a sea rate of 400 per ounce was set (2 x 160 plus 14). British transit postage was established by applying the same formula to the British postage included in the international rate set by the Anglo-Prussian conven- tion. The postage was 3/2d. per single rate and yielded a transit postage per ounce of 834d., or l7/20 (2 x 8 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 59, p. 893. 1 U.S., 16 Statutes at Large 963. 3/2d. plus J4). These rates were directly incorporated into Article VI of the Prussian closed-mail convention. Strangely, the Belgian transit postage, which Prussia held at l/2 silbergraschen and Great Britian at /2d. for a single rate, was to cost 80 per ounce. At the time the convention was framed, one Prus- sian silbergroschen was worth about 2.30 in United States currency. The rate within the German-Aus- trian Postal Union had been uniformly established at 2 silbergroschen by the German-Austrian convention, effective on 1 July 1850. In setting the German inland postage, 2 silbergroschen were rounded to 50. The United States also adopted an inland postage of 50. Article II established an international postage of 300 for a single rate of half an ounce (American) or one loth (German). In setting this rate, "the Article stated, sea and British and Belgian transit postage, will be . . . 200." Article VII stated that letter rates were established "on the supposition that four letters to the ounce will be about the average number," and it was agreed that if the number proved to be less, rates were to be adjusted accordingly. The rate per ounce for sea, British, and Belgian transit postages totaled 65/20 (sea, 400; British transit, 17/20; and Belgian transit, 80). This amount divided by four yields only 16.40, whereas the convention set an un- divided postage of 200 for these services. Thus, a "cushion" was built into the rate in case the average number of letters was fewer than four to the ounce. The accounting between the post offices was set forth in Article VI, as follows: The Prussian Post-Office is to account to the United States Post-Office in respect to all letter postages collected by Prussia from closed mails, as follows, viz.: On mails sent from the United States, for each unpaid letter weighing half an ounce or less, twenty-three cents And also on mails sent from Prussia, for each prepaid letter of half an ounce or under, twenty-five cents And, in addition thereto, the Prussian office is to account to Belgium for its transit rate on all letters received in said closed mails from the United States The United States Post-Office, when it collects the post- age on letters sent in the closed mails, is to account to the Prussian Post-Office, as follows, viz.: On mails sent from the United States, for each prepaid letter weighing half an ounce or less, seven cents And also on mails sent from Prussia, for each unpaid letter of half an ounce or under, five cents And the United States Post-Office is to account to the British Post-Office for British transit postage at the rate of fifty-seven and one half cents per ounce when mails are conveyed by British packets across the Atlantic, and at the rate of seventeen and one half cents per ounce when conveyed by United States packets across the Atlantic, in NUMBER 6 87 either direction; in addition to which, the United States Post-Office is to account to the British Post-Office for Bel- gian transit postage, at eight cents per ounce, on all letters in said closed mails from Prussia; that is, whenever, in all of the above cases, the British and Belgian conveyances are used. Thus, the United States paid the British Post Of- fice 400 per ounce for all Prussian closed-mail letters conveyed by British packet; it also paid the British Post Office 17/20 per ounce for transit through Eng- land on all letters conveyed in the Prussian closed mail; additionally, it paid the British Post Office 80 per ounce for transit through Belgium on all letters posted in Prussia addressed to the United States. Prussia made no payments to the British Post Office, but paid Belgium directly for transit through that country on all letters posted in the United States addressed to Prussia. The Belgian transit postage was 20 for a single rate and was evidently arrived at by dividing the 80-per-ounce rate by four. The exchange office accounting for Prus- sian closed mail is set forth in Table 20. Article I established exchange offices at Boston and New York in the United States and at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) in Prussia. Article IX stated: The closed mails will be made up at the office of New York or Boston, in the United States, respectively, as the conveyance may be directed by the United States Post- Office from either of said ports, to Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen), in Prussia, and at Aix-la-Chapelle (Aachen) to New York or Boston, according as the conveyance may be directed as aforesaid. It was the British Post Office, however, who exer- cised the option of sending the closed bags by British or American packet.3 In his annual report for 1853, Postmaster General Campbell complained bitterly about British discrimination against the Collins line steamers in this regard. He pointed out that from 16 October 1852 to 30 June 1853, sea postage charged against the United States on Prussian closed mail dis- patched from Great Britain was eight times more than that earned by the Collins line steamers which per- formed half as many voyages as the Cunard line. Dur- ing this same period, the postage on Prussian closed mails disptached by the United States, considering the difference in the number of voyages performed, was about equally divided between the Cunard and Col- lins line services. By Article II, prepayment of the 300 international rate was made optional, but it shall not, however, be permitted to pay less than the whole combined rate. If the letter is of the weight of half an ounce or under, the combined rate is 30 cents. Above half an ounce and not over an ounce, 60 cents. Above one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, $1.20. And the postage will increase in this scale of progression, to wit: An additional 60 cents for each ounce, or fraction of an ounce. A partial payment of the international rate was not recognized, but the letter was forwarded as an un- paid letter. The nonrecognition of a payment of less than the whole rate, however, applied only to the in- 5 Since the Aachen office made up mails to be sent by either British or American packet and, accordingly, made out the letter-bills for one or the other service, the British office furnished the Aachen office schedules of sailings by which it would disptach Prussian closed mails to the U.S. TABLE 20.-—Exchange Office Accounting for Prussian Closed Mail Postage Rate Letters from U.S. Letters from Prussia Unpaid Prepaid Unpaid Prepaid U.S. inland Sea and British transit 18 la (a) (•) 18 Belgian transit Prussian inland rate 2 5 (b) 5 5c 2 (b) International 30 — Debit to Prussia by U.S. — 23 — — — Credit to Prussia by U.S. — — 7 — — Debit to U.S. Credit to U.S by Prussia . by Prussia — — — 5 25 a Retained from collection or prepayment by the United States. b Retained from collection or prepayment by Prussia. 372-645 O—70 7 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FRANCO AACHEN 11 1 FRANCO TRANCO PftF.U&S.ftlSUVKUINS JkVNfiAlRS-GRENZE FIGURE 51.—MARKINGS on Prussian closed-mail covers. ternational rate. Tables of postal rates to foreign countries were published in the United States from time to time, in postal guides, almanacs, postal direc- tories, and in post office broadsides, as well as in edi- tions of the Postal Laws and Regulations. After Oc- tober 1860 these tables were published monthly in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, a private publica- tion having official sanction. Prussian closed-mail rates included in these tables to countries beyond the Ger- man-Austrian Postal Union indicated the amount of postage to particular countries and whether prepay- ment was optional. When prepayment was optional, it was possible to pay only the 30^ international rate, which paid the letter to the border of the German- Austrian Postal Union; it was forwarded from there with the remaining foreign postage to be collected from the addressee. These letters were rated and marked by the Aachen office which also applied special handstamps to indicate that the postage was paid only to the border of the postal union. Marking Q of Figure 51 is an example of one of these markings. It is inscribed FRANCO/PREUSS. RESP. VEREINS/AUS- GANGS-GRENZE. This translates literally as "Paid/Prus- sian, and so forth, Union/Exit-Border." A free trans- lation would be "Paid to the point of exit on the border of the German-Austrian Postal Union." Information as to whether a rate paid to destina- tion in or to the frontier of a particular country is not disclosed by the published tables of postages. In regard to Prussian closed mail, where optional pre- payment is shown, the rate usually paid the letter to its destination. In those cases where prepayment was compulsory, the rate usually paid the letter only to the frontier of the country of destination. The convention does not mention German cur- rency, or any equivalent in United States money. All of the rates were expressed in, and all of the account- ing was to be performed in United States currency. Since there was a welter of currencies circulating throughout Germany, it is doubtful that any particular currency could have been used. In general, the Prus- sian closed-mail rate was 13 silbergroschen in the northern states and 45 kreuzer in the southern states. There was, however, a special fee for delivery which was collected from the addressee. This charge appears to have varied in amount. Unpaid letters from the United States show a superaddition to the 13-silber- groschen rate, sometimes expressed as a fraction of a silbergroschen, and sometimes expressed in pfennige. Smith states: G The existence of this charge was found to be specially unfortunate in regard to foreign letters, since its collection was regarded by foreign administrations as an addition to the ordinary postage and consequently an evasion of the terms of the agreements under which foreign rates had been fixed. Beginning in 1862, this fee was to be gradually abol- ished and by 1864 was no longer to exist.7 There was, however, a fee for rural delivery which was not abol- ished until 1 January 1872.8 As already mentioned, the Prussian closed-mail rate in the southern German states of Baden, Bavaria, and Wurttemberg appears to have been 45 kreuzer. The currency in these states was based upon 60 kreuzer to the florin or gulden, either of which was worth about 400 in United States currency, and each kreuzer was, therefore, worth about two thirds of a cent. Until 1858 the florin of Austria was worth 480, and its kreuzer about four fifths of a cent. An 1851 almanac (its title page is missing and full citation cannot be given) in a table entitled "Value of Silver Coin & A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, p. 107. Ibid. Ibid., p. 110. NUMBER 6 89 Foreign Currencies" shows 20 kreuzer to be equal to 160. The Prussian closed-mail rate in Austria was, therefore, 38 kreuzer. In 1858 Austria increased the number of kreuzer to the gulden from 60 to 100. It was the custom of the Aachen office to show the Union and foreign postages on letters prepaid in Ger- many or on unpaid letters from the United States. The Union postage was 2 silbergroschen, or 6 kreuzer, while the remaining postage was 11 silbergroschen, or 39 kreuzer. One, and sometimes both, of these amounts appear on letters prepaid in Germany. Unpaid letters from the United States usually show a 2, or a 6, applied in manuscript or by use of a handstamp. Prussia paid the postage on letters to or from places beyond the German-Austrian Postal Union. When the postage to these places was prepaid in the United States, the exchange offices increased the credit to Prussia above the 70 applicable to the 300 rate by the amount of postage beyond the border of the Union. Thus, a letter to Switzerland would bear a credit of 120, the postage beyond the border being 50, and the total postage set at 350. The effective date of the convention as provided by Article XX was to be one month from the time notice was received of its being concluded. The annual report of Postmaster General Campbell for the year ended 30 June 1853 gives the effective date as 16 October 1852. This was undoubtedly determined by the sailing date of the first American packet at the expiration of one month after notification was received. The Collins line steamer Atlantic sailed from New York on that date, and it is presumed she carried the first Prussian closed mail dispatched from the United States. Prussian Closed-Mail Markings and Covers Because the Prussian closed mail was sent in closed bags between New York or Boston and Aachen through England and Belgium, its covers do not bear British or Belgian markings. At least as early as 12 January 1853, the New York office used a marking on letters prepaid in the United States similar to A of Figure 51, applied in red. The Boston office applied marking C in red to the face and a marking similar to B of Figure 51 (with either BR. or AM. PKT.) in black to the reverse of pre- paid letters forwarded from that office. At a later date (uncertain) a marking similar to A of Figure 51, but inscribed BOSTON instead of N. YORK was introduced. The Aachen office marked prepaid letters received from the United States with markings showing the word FRANCO. The earliest and latest uses of these markings noted to the date of this writing are as follows (letters in parentheses refer to Figure 51) : Earliest Latest Marking 24 Jan. 1853 12 Dec. 1854 26 Dec. 1854 5 Apr. 1855 19 Jan. 1855 (one seen) 29 Apr. 1854 1 Dec. 1863 10 Mar. 1865 22 Apr. 1867 Large FRANCO (M) Small FRANCO (N) Boxed Franco (O) Boxed AACHEN/FRANCO (P) In red In blue Until marking P of Figure 51 came into use, the Aachen office applied either marking / or K to the reverse of prepaid letters received at that office. Unpaid letters posted in the United States show a debit of 230 for a single rate in black ink on the face of the letter. Marking D of Figure 51 is typical of these markings.9 To these unpaid letters the Aachen office applied either marking / or K of Figure 51 to the reverse of the cover. Markings F and G were applied to early prepaid letters posted in Germany, addressed to the United States. A marking similar to G of Figure 51 shows AMERIC for American packet service, instead of the BRIT illustrated. These markings were applied in red, marking F to die face, and G to the reverse of such letters. At a later date (uncertain) markings F and G were superseded by marking L. It must be noted that, since all postage beyond the German-Austrian Postal Union was at Prussian expense, all Prussian closed- mail prepaid letters sent by the Aachen office, re- gardless of their point of origin, bear a credit to the United States of 250 per single rate. Prepaid letters received by the New York or Boston offices usually show a restatement of the 300 international rate marked in red ink. Marking / is a typical marking showing a restatement of rate. Unpaid letters forwarded by the Aachen office to the United States show a debit of 50 per single rate, usually similar to marking H applied in black. To these unpaid letters, the United States offices applied black markings indicating a collection of 300 per 0 For a more complete presentation of postal markings used on Prussian closed mail see Tracy W. Simpson, "United States Postal Markings and Related Mail Services, 1851 to 1861," pp. 91-109. For markings of the Boston office see M. C. Blake and W. W. Davis, "Boston Postal Markings of Boston, Massachusetts, to 1890," pp. 157-189. 90 single rate. Marking E is a typical marking indicat- ing the postage to be collected. Figure 52 presents a very early Prussian closed-mail cover. It is the only cover seen by the author which has the 300 rate prepaid by stamps and which bears the large FRANCO marking (M of Figure 51). Posted in Baltimore, Maryland, on 7 January 1853, it was forwarded to the New York office where marking A of Figure 51 (with the date of JAN/12) was applied in red. This letter was placed in a bag which was closed at the New York office and forwarded to Liver- pool by R.M.S. Asia of the Cunard line which sailed from New York on 12 January 1853. The Liverpool office forwarded the closed bag through London and Ostend directly to the Aachen office where the bag was opened. On the reverse of this letter is an Aachen marking in orange ink (marking / of Figure 51) which bears the date of 24/1, indicating that it ar- rived at the Aachen office on 24 January. As is true of many Prussian closed-mail letters, there is nothing in either the United States or German markings to indicate the year. In this case, however, the cover is a folded letter whose heading shows the year to be 1853. Figure 53 illustrates a letter posted in Warsaw, Illi- SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY nois, on 17 July (1857), prepaid 300 by a strip of three of the imperforate 100 stamps of the 1851 issue, posi- tions 1L, 2L (type II), and 3L (type III) of plate I. The letter was forwarded to the New York office which applied marking A of Figure 51 in red ink, with the date of JUL/2 2. Since there is nothing on the cover to indicate the year, it is necessary to determine it from the New York postmark. The marking shows British packet service, and this means service by the Cunard line. The date of 22 July, therefore, could be a Tues- day if the packet sailed from Boston on 23 July, or it could be a Wednesday if the packet sailed from New York on 22 July. In 1855 all sailings were from Boston, America sailing from there on 18 July. Thus, the year was not 1855. In 1856 Africa sailed from New York on 23 July, which eliminates 1856. In 1857 Arabia sailed from New York on 22 July, which indicates that this is the year in which the letter was mailed. Marking P of Figure 51 was applied in red by the Aachen office, and this marking shows the date of 4/8, which means that it arrived there on 4 August. The letter was, there- fore, thirteen days in transit from New York to Aachen. Surface mail is seldom faster than that today. Figure 54 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in Co- lumbia, Maine, on 8 October (1853), addressed to .,4 1 v^^ ^ &£&$%> 7 i /2tt£y?~< FIGURE 52.—COVER, from Baltimore to Munich, Bavaria, 1853. {Melvin W. Schuh collection) NUMBER 6 91 Sj*4S ^Lx^^ee^ -*£^W^ sW «^*L^ FIGURE 53.—COVER, from Warsaw, Illinois, to Osnabriick, Germany, 1857. (Mortimer L. Neinken collection) / ?6b. r/MCt/it/. //. '//{/// v v. -v. ^. fS/l r FIGURE 54.—COVER, from Columbia, Maine, to Weimar, Germany, 1853. (Photography by Smithsonian) 92 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Weimar, Thuringia. The cover is a 30 Nesbitt envelope (seal of G. F. Nesbitt/N.Y., on reverse) which prepaid the letter with 30. Since this was a partial pay- ment of the 300 rate, the New York office did not recognize it (see Article II, above, page 87) and marked the letter with the unpaid debit of 230. The New York marking shows British packet (Cunard line) service and die date of 19 October. This indicates that die letter was forwarded to Liverpool by R.M.S. Arabia which sailed from New York on 19 October 1853. On the reverse is an orange Aachen marking (K of Figure 51) bearing the date of l/i l (1 November). There are several other transit marks and a Weimar receiving mark showing the date of 2 November. Of particular interest are the foreign rate markings. At left is a blue manuscript 45 which shows that the letter was rated for a collection of 45 kreuzer, the equivalent of 300. This is crossed out in red crayon, and it is marked with 13 9, which indicates that 13 silber- groschen and 9 pfennige were to be collected. In Thuringia both the silbergroschen and the kreuzer were in circulation, and the recipient evidently pre- ferred to pay in silbergroschen. The Prussian closed- mail rate, however, was only 13 silbergroschen, and diis letter shows a surcharge of 9 pfennige. The sur- charge evidently represents the delivery fee previously mentioned in this chapter. The 45 kreuzer represented the rate to be charged while the letter was held in the post office, but when delivery was made, the additional 9 pfennige were added. This cover is illustrated as photo 22 in the first section of the late Stanley B. Ash- brook's Special Service. Mr. Ashbrook indicated that the circular marking with 2 3 in the center was a Prus- sian marking. It may be; the author does not know whether it is. On the reverse is a blue manuscript 11, which indicated the foreign portion of the 13-silber- groschen rate, the remaining 2 silbergroschen repre- senting the Union postage. Figure 55 illustrates a cover posted in Munich, ad- dressed to New York. It is prepaid 45 kreuzer by a strip of three and a pair of 9 kreuzer Bavarian stamps (Scott no. 6). The date in the Munich postmark is 4 October, while an Aachen marking (L of Figure 51) shows that it passed through that office on 7 Octo- ber. The Aachen office indicated the foreign postage in silbergroschen by marking it 11 in red crayon. The New York office restated the 300 rate by striking it with a marking similar to / of Figure 51, but showing FIGURE 55.—COVER, from Munich to New York, 1856. (Photograph by Smithsonian) NUMBER 6 93 N. YORK instead of BOSTON. The date in this marking is OCT/25, and steamer Ericsson, then in Collins line service, arrived in New York on 25 October 1856. Figure 56 illustrates a double-rate cover to Norway by Prussian closed mail. This cover was posted in San Francisco on 18 April 1862, prepaid 920 by a pair of 10 and a single 900 stamp of the 1861 issue. The Prussian closed-mail rate to Norway at that time was 460, pre- payment optional, for a single rate. The foreign post- age, tiiat is, postage in excess of the 300 international rate, was 160 per single rate. The single-rate credit for die international postage of 70, dierefore, should be augmented by 160, and die total single-rate credit should be 230. Thus, the New York office marked this cover in red manuscript with a 46, representing a double-rate credit to Prussia. At the time Mr. J. David Baker illustrated this cover in the Chronicle,10 he asked, "Is this die only 900 cover known used to Norway?" To die date of this writing no other has been reported. Covers by British Open Mail From 1849 until 1856 tables of postages to foreign countries published in United States official and semi- official sources show the open-mail rates of 50 by 10 Chronicle of the U.S. Classic Issues 17, 1 (Oct. 1964) 37. British packet or of 210 by American packet as being available for letters addressed to the various German states and to most of the countries in central and eastern Europe. The table included in the 1857 edition of the Postal Laws and Regulations deletes the open- mail rates to most of those destinations and introduces rates by French mail. The deletion does not mean diat open-mail rates to those countries were no longer avail- able for use by the United States exchange offices; it simply means that the Post Office Department no longer recommended this route for mails addressed to tiiose destinations. After the Prussian closed-mail con- vention became effective on 16 October 1852, little mail between the northern German states and the United States was sent in the British open mail. The few covers seen were forwarded by the London office to the Prussian office at Aachen in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail under terms of the Anglo-Prussian conven- tion of 2/7 July 1852. This route proceeded from Lon- don through Ostend and Venders to Aachen, and thence to the second Prussian exchange office for Anglo-Prussian closed mail at Cologne. Letters from the United States were usually put off at Aachen, while letters to the United States usually entered the closed mails at Cologne. The United States-Prussian closed mail also followed this route, but Aachen was the ex- change office for mail sent in either direction. Prior to the effective date of the United States- y Ahc^^/A f?> js//< >< FIGURE 56.—COVER, from San Francisco to Thronjem [Trondhjem—Trondheim], Norway, 1862 (Courtesy of J. David Baker) 94 French convention, 1 April 1857, mail addressed to the southern German states, Switzerland, and the northern Italian states was usually sent in the British open mail through France or in the Prussian closed mail. Bremen rates, and after 1 July 1857, rates by the Bremen and Hamburg services, were also available to these destina- tions. After the United States-French convention be- came effective, open-mail covers to these destinations are seldom seen. Figure 57 illustrates a cover posted in Rochester, New York, on 14 February 1853, addressed to Berlin. It is prepaid 210 by a strip of seven 30 stamps of the 1851 issue. A New York American packet marking dated 19 February indicates service to Liverpool by U.S.M. (United States Mail) steamer Atlantic of the Collins line. The cover bears on its face markings B, C, and E of Figure 58. Marking B is the British debit to Prussia for British and Belgian transit postage (see page 86. This marking does not appear on several covers used during 1856, and it is not known whether the use of the marking was discontinued, or whether it was omitted on covers in error. Marking E is in blue manuscript and indicates that 7 silbergroschen were to be collected (see page 86). On the reverse of the cover is a circular British marking BX/3 MR 3/1853 applied in orange-red ink, and marking A of Figure 58 dated 4/3, that is 4 March. These markings are SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY characteristic of open-mail letters forwarded by the London office in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail. Figure 59 illustrates a cover posted in Mainz on 29 April 1856, adderssed to New York. The letter is pre- paid 47 kreuzer by a strip of five of the 9-kreuzer and two single 1-kreuzer stamps (Scott nos. 46 and 42, respectively, of the Southern District of Thurn and Taxis posts of Germany). On die face is a P. in a circle and a PD marking which indicated that the postage was paid to destination, in this case, the United States frontier. On the reverse is a double circle COELN/5-6 mark- ing with date of 30/4 (30 April) in the center. This indicates that the letter entered the Anglo-Prussian closed mail at the Cologne office on 30 April 1856. The Cologne office marked the letter 10y4 gn in manuscript in red ink to show a credit to Great Britain of IO34 groschen. This was for sea postage which was 8d. under the United States-British treaty, and was evidently held at 7% silbergroschen, plus 3/2 silber- groschen for British and Belgian transit (see page 86). These same rates in British pence were 8d. and 4d., respectively, and the London office, which performed the accounting, marked the letter ls. in red manuscript. The German postage was also 3 J/2 silbergroschen or 4d., which would make the total postage to the United States frontier amount to 32^ (24^ British and u&gmst wwm^' iP^^ ffi^SSPI fl^lS 1^^^. *&>: ' .;;4^f*^f; lfflRti@$&&' .^&&&!sBs: SdM^s -mr^^^-i^rrj^^-^^ FIGURE 57.—COVER, from Rochester, N.Y., to Berlin, Prussia, 1853. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) NUMBER 6 95 B U.S.P?T c FIGURE 58.—MARKINGS on open-mail covers to Germany and Switzerland. 80 German). Since 1 kreuzer was equal to about two thirds of a United States cent, 47 kreuzer were equal to about 31^3^, the discrepancy undoubtedly being due to rounding off the rates and coin. The London office marked the letter PAID and for- warded it to Liverpool on 2 May 1856 (see circular PAID/2 MY 2/1856 on face of cover). The New York office marked the letter in black with a circular 5/N. YORK BR. PKT. marking dated MAY/I6. The R.M.S. Asia of the Cunard line arrived in New York on that date, confirming the endorsement to that ship. Five cents were collected in New York. Figure 60 illustrates a most unusual cover. It was posted in New Orleans on 27 December 1856, ad- dressed to Basle, Switzerland. It is endorsed "p. first Steamer via Liverpool/p. prussian closed mail." Since the first steamer to Liverpool may not have carried a Prussian closed mail, the two portions of the endorse- ment were ambiguous. The single rate by Prussian closed mail to Switzerland was 35^. This letter is pre- paid 700 by stamps of the 1851 issue, which apparently indicates that the mailer's intention was to send it in the Prussian closed mail, and that the letter weighed over half an ounce, requiring two rates. For a reason upon which it is futile to speculate, the New York office sent the letter in the British open mail to Liverpool, instead of in the Prussian closed mail. A New York American packet marking dated 17 January signifies service to Liverpool by steamer Ericsson, then running for the Collins line. Since this was an American packet, only 420 of the 700 prepayment was utilized. On the reverse is a London marking FD/2 FE 2/185 7 applied in orange-red. The London office evidently intended to send the letter through France, but, after applying a GB/4 00 marking (O of Figure 18), changed the rout- ing and sent it in the Anglo-Prussian closed mail to Aachen. On the face of the cover is marking C and on the reverse, marking A of Figure 58 dated 3/2 (3 February). Rates for transit mail were established by Articles II and III of the Anglo-Prussian convention. Transit letters were to be liable for the 8d. or 7 silbergroschen international rate and "be further liable to the rates which are now or which shall hereafter be taken from FIGURE 59.—COVER, from Mainz [Germany], to New York, 1856. 96 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Z4^Z^>' FIGURE 60.—COVER, from New Orleans to Basle, Switzerland, 1856. (Hugh J. Baker, Jr., collection) British subjects, upon letters . . passing in transit through any of the States of the German Postal Union, and also the United Kingdom"; the foreign rates "are to be calculated from the port of departure or arrival of the packet." Article II refers to an appended table which gives the rate to Switzerland as 5d. foreign postage and 4d. British and Belgian transit for a total of 9d. Since Id. (British) was equal to 10 rappen (Swiss), a double-rate letter should be rated for a collection of 180 rappen in Switzerland. On the face of the cover (Figure 60) is a red crayon 180, and since it was the custom of the Swiss to show postage due in red crayon, it is presumed that this marking in- dicated the amount to be collected. Also on the face of the cover are blue manuscript markings which are presumed to be German. The author has not been able to determine the nature of these markings in regard to either the currency they represent or their significance. Figure 61 illustrates an open-mail cover that was forwarded through France. This letter was posted in Philadelphia on 21 November 1851, addressed to Nuremburg [sic], Bavaria. It is prepaid 210 for Ameri- can packet service by a strip of four and a strip of three of the 30 stamps in the orange-brown shade. The Phila- delphia postmark is in blue as are also the grids cancel- ing the stamps. The New York American packet mark- ing had not yet been introduced, but it is presumed this letter was conveyed to Liverpool by U.S.M. steamer Baltic which sailed from New York on 22 November 1851. Although the provisional agreement between France and England which culminated in the decree of 19 November 1851 fixed rates only between England and France and those places on the Mediterranean where France had post offices, the COLONIES/&c. ART. 13 was no longer used on mail in transit through France from the United States. On this cover, marking E of Figure 18 with the date of 6 December 1851 was applied in black. Marking E was introduced at the time the COLONIES/&C. ART 13 (B of Figure 18) was dis- continued on mail from the United States. The cover bears a manuscript / /30 marking, which it is presumed signified that one florin thirty kreuzer were to be col- lected in Bavaria. This was equal to 600 in United States currency and to 90 Bavarian kreuzer. The south- ern German states charged postage on the quarter- ounce basis, and it is suspected that this represented a collection of two single rates of 45 kreuzer. Figure 62 illustrates a most unusual cover which was sent through France in the open mail as late as 1865. This letter originated in a town named Mishicott, but the name of the state is off the letter. There was a town by the name of Mishicot (spelled with one t) in Wisconsin, and this is the only town by that name NUMBER 6 97 'jf/j^diL <^£^^&^s£r &ra5?~^ ^^ f 'CCV&z*^ £2&t&t<.ck- FIGURE 61.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Nuremburg [Nuremberg], Bavaria, 1851. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) that has been found in any of the listings to which reference has been made. The state of origin is, there- fore, uncertain. If the state was Wisconsin, however, much about the cover can be explained. As will be more fully examined later, the additional articles to the United States-French convention, effective 1 April 1861, which created an exchange office at Detroit, pro- vided that all French mail originating in Wisconsin be sent to that office, whence it was to be forwarded by the Allan line from Portland or River du Loup. The Detroit office could not send French mail to Boston or New York for transmission, but it could send British mail to the offices at Boston or New York to be in- cluded in mails made up at those offices. The Detroit office made up no mails for conveyance to Europe that were not to be forwarded by the Allan line. It is assumed that this letter was sent by the Mish- icott office to the office at Detroit prepaid with 210 in stamps and without the required endorsement if it were to be sent by French mail. Although the table of postages to foreign countries does not show the open-mail rates as being available on mail to Swit- zerland, they were available to the exchange offices, and the public was admonished to endorse its letters to be sent by French mail, or they might be sent in die open mail to Liverpool.11 Whether it was the intention of the person who mailed this letter to send it by French mail is not known. The Detroit office determined that it weighed over one-fourth ounce and would require two French mail rates of 210 to be prepaid. If it were sent by French mail it would have to be forwarded as an un- paid letter, the 210 prepaid not being recognized. Since the letter was not endorsed to be sent by French mail, it was sent in the British mail, directed to the New York office. At the New York office it was included in the Liverpool mail and entered on the letter-bill as an open-mail letter addressed to Switzerland. The New York packet marking was applied lightly in red over the Mishicott mark- ing and shows the date of 4 November. On 4 Novem- ber 1865, the City of New York of the Inman line sailed from New York for Queenstown with die British mail, and it is assumed she carried this letter to Liverpool. Since Liverpool was not an exchange office 11 U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant on page 4 under "Foreign Miscellany." All issues from October 1860 through December 1867. 98 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY *-wr ? ...■■-■ A* 4 KJ*2**J 5 FIGURE 62.—COVER, from Mishicott [state unknown] to Martigny, Switzerland, 1865. for Anglo-French mail, this letter was forwarded to the London office, whence it was forwarded to France on 17 November 1865 (London marking bearing this date on reverse of cover). The London office also marked the cover with the GB/4 0C marking (O of Figure 18), showing that it was forwarded to France charged with transit postage only. The ambulant of- fice, Calais to Paris, marked the letter with marking N of Figure 18 dated 17 November 1865. The Paris office (marking on reverse, date 18 November 1865) forwarded the letter to a French border exchange office designated by the marking F./2 7. Maury 12 lists thirty-nine such markings, each with 12 Author Maury, Catalogue descriptif de toutes les marques postales de la France, pp. 48-50. the single letter F. and a numeral, and having a border of a different shape. He notes that they were intro- duced in 1857 and that they were applied by the French exchange offices on letters passing in transit through France (see marking D of Figure 58). On the reverse of the letter is a marking of the Swiss AM- BULANT-CIRCULAIRE dated 19 November 1865 and a Martigny town marking of the same date. On the face at upper left is a small manuscript 2 signifying a dou- ble-rate letter, and a 140 in red crayon. This latter marking indicates that 140 centimes were to be col- lected in Switzerland. Very few letters were sent in the open mail to points on the continent through France as late as 1865. Chapter 6 Postal Relations With Belgium 1844-1868 On 19 October 1844, a postal convention between Great Britain and Belgium was signed at London.1 This convention governed the exchange of mail between the United States and Belgium, via England, until after the United States-British treaty became effective in 1849. During this period, mails to or from the United States were sent in the ordinary or "open" mail. The rates to be charged in Belgium on letters to or from "colonies and countries beyond the sea" were set forth in Article XXIV, as follows: 1. Eightpence per single letter, for transit mrough the territory of the United Kingdom. 2. The packet rate the inhabitants of Great Britain have to pay on letters coming from or addressed to colonies and countries beyond the sea. The detailed regulations, in an appended table,2 specifically provided a rate for the United States of ls. 8d., which was to be prepaid in Belgium on letters sent, or collected there on letters received. Since this rate covered only British transit and packet postages, it paid the letter no farther than the frontiers of the two countries. Inland postage in either country was required to be prepaid on letters sent, or collected on letters received. The inland postage to be prepaid or collected in Belgium was set by Article XIX at 4 decimes, or 4d. Article X of the detailed regulations established the progression of the Belgian postage, as follows: 1. Under 10 grams, one single rate 2. From 10 grams to 15 grams inclusively, one rate and a half 1 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 32, pp. 66-77. (According to a letter from Jacques Stibbe of Brussels this convention was placed in force in Belgium on 1 Dec. 1844.) 2 Ibid., pp. 78-85. 3. From 15 grams to 20 grams inclusively, two rates 4. From 20 grams to 30 grams inclusively, two rates and a half, and so on; one half rate being added for every 10 grams The British postage was calculated upon the progres- sion then in force in Great Britain, which was: 1. For every letter not exceeding half an ounce in weight, one single rate 2. Above half an ounce, but not exceeding one ounce, two rates 3. Above one ounce, but not exceeding two ounces, four rates and so on, two rates being added for every ounce, or fraction of an ounce. Article I of the detailed regulations required that the Belgian office at Ostend exchange mails with the British offices at Dover and London. The Belgian of- fice at Antwerp was to exchange mails only with the British office at London. By additional articles signed at London on 18 June 1845,3 the office at Antwerp was also to correspond with a new British office at Hull. The advent of the American contract packets of the Ocean Steam Navigation Company in June 1847 cre- ated a number of problems for the British Post Office. As explained in Chapter 2, it was the desire of the United States Post Office that letters conveyed by American packets be delivered to the British Post Office at Southampton to be forwarded from that office as letters originating in the United Kingdom. It was hoped that the British would relinquish their 8d. ship letter fee on these letters. Had the British Post Office acceded to this American wish, the inhabitants of the United Kingdom would, have paid no packet postage Ibid., vol. 33, p. 35. NUMBER 6 99 100 on letters conveyed by the American steamers. Under XXIV of the Anglo-Belgian convention (previously outlined), no packet postage, under this circumstance, would have been levied in Belgium on letters conveyed by the American line. Implementing Article XXIV of the convention, the detailed regulations, however, pro- vided a sole rate of ls. 8d. for mail to or from die United States. This provision would have required amendment so that it applied only to mail conveyed by British packets, and an additional rate of 8d. for letters by American packet would have to have been intro- duced. It will be remembered that the Anglo-Prussian convention of 1 October 1846 and the Anglo-French convention of 3 April 1843 also provided for sole open- or closed-mail rates between the frontier of the United States and the frontiers of Prussia or France. On 9 June 1847, the British Post Office solved its problem. As will be remembered from Chapter 2, on that date the British Post Office issued an order requir- ing the inhabitants of the United Kingdom to pay the ls.-packet postage on letters conveyed by the Ameri- can line. Thus, the inhabitants of Belgium were also required to pay it, and the sole rate of ls. 8d. prevailed. In issuing this order, the British Post Office was primarily, and avowedly, motivated by a desire to protect the Cunard line of contract packets. It cannot be doubted, however, tiiat a desire to maintain die existing mail arrangements the British Post Office held with the corridor countries on the continent was also an influencing factor. While the United States "retaliatory" act of 27 June 1848 required that 240-packet postage be col- lected in the United States on letters conveyed by the Cunard line, it had no effect on the postage prepaid or collected in Belgium. After the United States-British treaty was signed on 15 December 1848, and before it became effective on 15 February 1849, it will be remem- bered, the former rates were restored; in Britain on 29 December 1848 by a treasury warrant, and in the United States on 3 January 1849 by a post office order. Between 29 December 1848 and 15 February 1849, therefore, the ls. charge for packet postage on mail between the Belgian and United States frontiers, when conveyed by American packets, should have been dropped. Since there were no sailings by the American Ocean line between 20 November 1848 and 20 Febru- ary 1849,4 the British Post Office did not have to face this issue. 4 Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Cur- rent, arrival and clearance dates reported in appropriate issues. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY From 1844 until the United States-British treaty became effective on 15 February 1849, therefore, there was a sole rate of ls. 8d. between the United States and Belgian frontiers, whether the letter was conveyed by a British or an American packet. When the United States-British treaty became effective in Great Britain, the packet rate was reduced to 8d., and according to Article XXIV of the Anglo-Belgian convention, should have immediately reduced the rate between the United States and Belgian frontiers to Is. 4d. by British packet, and to 8d. by American packet. No covers passing be- tween the United States and Belgium during this pe- riod, however, have been seen, and it is not known whether this reduction was immediately recognized.5 J^fy'j. Figure 63 illustrates a letter posted in Charleston, South Carolina, on 21 February 1848, addressed to Gand, Belgium, and endorsed to Cunard steamer Hibernia. The inland rate from Charleston to New York, a distance of over 300 miles, was 100, which was prepaid by use of a pair of 50 stamps of the 1847 issue. The letter was conveyed by Hibernia, which sailed from New York on 26 February and arrived in Liverpool on 11 March 1848. Since Liverpool was not an exchange office for Anglo-Belgian mail, this letter was sent directly to the London or Dover office, probably the foreign office at Lombard Street, London. FIGURE 63.—COVER, from Charleston, S.C., to Gand [Ghent], Belgium, 1948. (Photograph by Ashbrooke. Courtesy of Creighton C. Hart) 6 A letter from Stibbe states that the reduction in rate following the U.S.-British treaty was placed in force in Belgium after 29 Mar. 1849. An official circulaire concluded: "A new convention between Great Britain and the United States of America has reduced the rate on correspondence exchanged, via England, between the United States and the continent. This correspondence can be sent by English or American packets, at the choice of the senders. However, those intended to be sent by the latter, must bear in the upper part of the address the words: 'Par paquebot des Etats Unis'. . . . Followed by the postage to the benefit of Great Britain." NUMBER 6 101 The back of the cover is not shown, but it should bear a British exchange office marking showing a date of 11 or 12 March. The British exchange office debited Belgium with ls. 8d.3 which is indicated by the manu- script 1/8 on the face at right. The letter was then forwarded to either the Ostend or the Antwerp office, which marked it for a collection in Belgium of 24 decimes. This is shown by the manuscript marking in blue, which looks something like 9N, but is the way the Belgians and the French wrote 24. The ls. 8d., of course, was equal to 20d., or 20 decimes, to which was added 4 decimes for Belgian inland postage. Figure 64 presents a cover to which the late Stanley B. Ashbrook devoted considerable space in his Special Service* As Mr. Ashbrook pointed out, this letter orig- inated in Charleston, South Carolina, on 28 October 1848, during the retaliatory period, and required a pre- payment of 100 inland (for a distance beyond 300 miles), and a packet postage of 240, for a total of 340. This postage was prepaid by use of a strip of three of the 100 stamps and a single 50 stamp of the 1847 issue. Thus, the letter was 10 overpaid. It was conveyed, in some manner not apparent on the cover, to New York, where it was posted and the stamps canceled with the well-known square grid. It is endorsed to steamer Niagara, which sailed from Boston on 1 November and S. B. Ashbrook, Special Service, issue 20, pp. 137-144. arrived in Liverpool on 13 November 1848. Mr. Ash- brook photographed the back of the cover (not shown here), and this bears what appears to be a London marking with the date of 14 November 1848, indicat- ing the date it was dispatched from that office. Shown is an Ostend marking dated 15 November and a Gand receiving mark bearing the date of 18 November. On the face of the cover is a manuscript yk in black ink, indicating the British debit to Belgium. Also on the face of the cover is a rectangular box marking, bearing three lines of type. Because the im- pression is somewhat blurred, these cannot be read from the photograph, but Mr. Ashbrook was able to decipher them from the original. They read (with a literal translation), as follows: DEBOURS ETRANGER ("Foreign disbursement") J/Q [inserted]/TAXE REDUITE ("Rate converted") 20 [inserted]/PORT BELGE ("Bel- gian postage") 4 [inserted]. The inserted figures show the British postage of ls. 8d. and its equivalent of 20 decimes brought down. The Belgian postage of 4 decimes indicates that the letter weighed under ten grams. This marking was undoubt- edly developed to assist in computing and explaining the amount to be collected, which, because of the dif- ferences in the British and Belgian progressions, would become complicated on letters above ten grams in weight. Also on the face is a manuscript 24, which indi- .«*!**.'. FIGURE 64.—COVER, from Charleston, S.C., to Gand [Ghent], Belgium, 1848. (Photograph by Ashbrook. Courtesy of Creighton C. Hart) 102 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY cated that 24 decimes were to be collected from the addressee in Gand [Ghent]. The covers illustrated in Figures 63 and 64 both show the same rate to be collected in Belgium, as would any cover whose weight was under ten grams, sent from the United States to Belgium, via England, be- tween 1844 and 15 February 1849. The photographs of these covers were taken from the late Stanley B. Ash- brook's Special Service, and are presented here through the courtesy of Mr. Creighton C. Hart. On 27 November 1849,7 an additional postal con- vention between Great Britain and Belgium was signed at London. Although this convention was considered as additional to the convention of 19 October 1844, many changes in the original arrangements were made. Article I reduced the Belgian inland postage to 2 decimes, or pence, and changed the progression for the Belgian postage to the following: 1. Under 7/2 grams, one single rate 2. From 7l/i grams to 15 grams exclusively, two rates 3. From 15 grams to 2 2/a grams exclusively, three rates, and so on, one rate being added for every 7^2 grams Article V set the rates for ordinary transit corre- spondence as follows: 1. Fourpence per single letter for transit through the territory of the United Kingdom, when the letter shall be posted in or addressed to Belgium . . 7 British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 37, pp. 11-19. (Ac- cording to a letter from Stibbe this convention became ef- fective in Belgium on 1 Feb. 1850.) 2. The packet rate which the inhabitants of Great Bri- tain have to pay on letters coming from or addressed to colonies and countries beyond the sea Article VIII made the rates established in Article V apply to closed mails. For a letter that weighed less than 7l/3 grams, there- fore, the rate to be prepaid or collected in Belgium was the sum of 2 decimes for inland, 4 decimes for British transit, and 8 decimes for packet postages. Thus, a total of 14 decimes would have paid such a letter posted in Belgium to the United States frontier when convey- ance was by a British packet. On such a letter, Belgium would have given Great Britain a credit of 12 decimes, the equivalent of ls. After 1854, if the British Post Office elected to send the above letter by an American packet, it would have given the United States a credit of 160 for packet postage (see Chapter 2, p. 39). Figure 65 illustrates a cover posted in Deep River, Connecticut, on 28 April 1856, addressed to Antwerp. It is prepaid 210 by a single 10 type IV stamp, and a pair of 10^ type II stamps of the 1851 issue. It was sent to the New York exchange office which forwarded it on 3 May 1856 to Southampton by the Arago of the Havre line. From Southampton it was sent to the London office which applied a straight-line u.s. pKT marking in black (C of Figure 58, Chapter 5) and debited Belgium in black manuscript with 4 (pence) transit postage. The Ostend exchange office applied a rectangular marking to the face of the letter, similar to that shown FIGURE 65.—COVER, from Deep River, Ct. [Connecticut], to Antwerp, 1856. (Courtesy of John A. Fox) NUMBER 6 103 in Figure 64. The manuscript insertions (in blue ink) in this marking are: DEBOURS ETRANGER 4 [inserted]/ TAXE REDUITE 4 [inserted]/poRT BELGE 2 [inserted]. Below this marking is a blue manuscript 6 which signi- fies a collection of 6 decimes (4 decimes transit and 2 decimes inland postage). The inland postage of 2 decimes was for a letter that weighed under 7/2 grams.s A new postal convention between the post offices of Great Britain and Belgium was signed at London on 28 August 1857.° This convention was preceded by one signed at London on 8 January 1857,10 which simply gave the post offices of the two countries the right to make a postal convention. The previous conventions, signed by the British secretary of foreign affairs and the Belgian minister at London, were diplomatically negotiated, but the two post offices were allowed to settle matters of detail. Evidently, a quirk of Belgian law required special permission for its postal authorities to make a postal convention. Article II established Belgian exchange offices at (1) Ostend, local office and travelling office; (2) Ant- werp; (3) travelling office on railway between Ghent and Mouscron; (4) travelling office between Brussels and Quievrain. The British offices remained (1) Dover, (2) London, and (3) Hull. Others could be established by agreement between the two post offices. Article VII set the international rate at 40 centimes, or 4d., which included Belgian postage of 20 centimes, or 2d., and British postage of 20 centimes, or 2d., for prepaid letters. Unpaid letters were at double the above rates, and insufficiently prepaid letters by means of postage stamps were charged double the amount of the deficiency. Dr. Robert de Wasserman of Brussels has kindly submitted a copy of Belgian Post Office order 413 which explains by several examples how the amount due on insufficiently paid letters was to be computed. One example will suffice. It translates: A single-rate letter, addressed from Belgium to England, and prepaid by postage stamps to the value of 10 centimes, will arrive at destination marked by the Belgian exchange office for a collection of 6d. (60 centimes), as follows: 40 10 30 60 One single rate Value of postage stamps Insufficiency Double the insufficiency 8 This cover is in the collection of L. L. Downing. "British and Foreign State Papers, vol. 56, pp. 989-997. (According to a letter from Stibbe this convention became effective in Belgium on 1 October 1857.) 10 Ibid., vol. 47, pp. 9-11. 372-645 Cv—70 8 Article VII also established the progression for both countries as that used in Great Britain, as follows: 1. For every letter of which the weight shall not exceed 15 grams (half an ounce), one single rate 2. Exceeding 15 grams (half an ounce) and not exceed ing 30 grams (I ounce), two rates 3. Exceeding 30 grams (1 ounce) and not exceeding 60 grams (two ounces), four rates, and so on, adding two rates per 30 grams or fraction of 30 grams (1 ounce or fraction of 1 ounce) Article XI set the rates for ordinary letters to or from colonies or countries beyond the sea, as follows: 1. For transit over the territory of the United Kingdom, 2d. per single letter 2. The sea rate paid by the British public upon letters originating in or addressed to the colonies or coun- tries beyond the sea Article XV applied the rates of Article XI to closed mail. By a table appended to the detailed regu- lations, special rates for letters between Belgium and the United States were fixed at 10 decimes by British packet, and 2 decimes by United States packet.11 These rates were required to be prepaid and accounted for by the Belgian office to the British office on cor- respondence originating in or addressed to British colonies, possessions, or foreign countries. The above rates were made applicable to unpaid letters forwarded by the British office to Belgium by Article XI of the convention. Thus, on letters posted in Belgium, addressed to the United States, a prepayment of 12 decimes, that is, 2 decimes Belgian inland, 2 decimes British transit, and 8 decimes sea postage, would pay the letter to the United States frontier by a British packet. By an Amer- ican packet the prepayment would be only 4 decimes (2 decimes Belgian inland and 2 decimes British transit postages). Letters posted in the United States, ad- dressed to Belgium, would require a prepayment of 5$ in the United States and a collection in Belgium of 12 decimes, if conveyed by British packet. If conveyance was by American packet, a prepayment of 2l£ in the United States was required, and 4 decimes would be collected in Belgium. Letters posted in Belgium pre- paid with the British packet rate of 12 decimes, if sent by American packet by the British Post Office, would receive a credit to the United States from the British Post Office of 160 for the packet postage. 11 Ibid., vol. 56, p. 611. 104 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Article XVI provided for mails which were to be sent by way of France: The mails which shall be exchanged in conformity with Article II of the present convention between the Belgian Post Offices established on the lines of railway from Ghent to Mouscron, and from Brussels to Quievrain, on the one side, and the British Post Offices of London and Dover, on the other side, shall be forwarded through the medium of the Post Office of France. In addition to the rates fixed by Article VII of the pres- ent Convention the correspondence, whether paid or un- paid, which the public of the two countries may wish to send by the route of France, shall be subject to a supple- mentary rate of 2 decimes, or pence, per single letter. Figure 66 illustrates an open-mail cover from the United States to Belgium by American packet. Posted in San Antonio, Texas, on 10 June (1859), addressed to Mons, Belgium, this letter is prepaid with 210 in stamps. It was forwarded from New York by steamer Fulton of the Havre Line, which sailed on 25 June 1859 for Cowes (Southampton) and Havre. The let- ter was sent through the Southampton office to London or Dover, and thence to Belgium. The back of the cover is not shown, but it must bear both British and Belgian markings. On the face appears what looks like a 24. It is, however, composed of two markings, a 2 and a 4. If the cover had been marked for a collection of 24 in Belgium, the marking would appear as it does on Figures 63 and 64. The 2 in the marking on diis cover is not written as die Belgians or the French would have written it, but it is the way the British would have written a 2. The 2, therefore, is the British debit of 2d., while die 4 indicates that 4 decimes were to be collected on delivery. The photo- graph of this cover is taken from the late Stanley B. Ashbrook's Special Service 12 and is presented here through the courtesy of Mr. Creighton C. Hart. Figure 67 presents a cover posted in Antwerp on 28 July 1863, addressed to New York. It is prepaid by one 20- and three 40-centime perforated stamps issued in 1863 for a total of 140 centimes. At upper left it is endorsed "Via Calais," indicating it was to be sent by die route of France which required the prepayment of an additional 20 centimes. The 140-centime rate is, therefore, divided into: Belgian inland, 20 centimes; French transit (paid to France), 20 centimes; British transit, 20 centimes; and packet postage, 80 centimes. To the right of the endorsement is a red manuscript 10, which is the Belgian credit to the British Post Office for the British transit and packet postages. The letter arrived at the London office prepaid with the postage required for transmission by a British packet. The London office, however, included it in mail to be sent by an American contract packet, and credited the United States Post Office with the packet postage of 160. This is shown by a red crayon 16 on the face. 1 Ashbrook, Special Service, issue 53, p. 420. IVJF & FIGURE 66.—COVER, from San Antonio, Tex., to Mons, Belgium, 1859. (Photograph by Ashbrook. Courtesy of Creighton C. Hart) NUMBER 6 /£» Cct-(a. '^ril^y* FIGURE 69.—COVER, from New York to Brussels, 1858. shows the date of 6 February, the date Fulton sailed from New York in 1858. The Havre exchange office marking, applied in indigo ink, is of the type shown as A in Figure 43 (Chapter 4), and the small boxed PD marking, also applied by the Havre office, is type M in Figure 43. The Havre marking shows the date of 22 February 1858, as does also a LE HAVRE A PARIS mark- ing on the reverse. Also on the reverse is a Paris mark- ing with the date of 23 February. It was forwarded by the travelling post office AMB. DU MIDI NO. 2 on the same day and arrived in Brussels on 25 February 1858. The 9 in the New York marking represents a credit of 30 for the international rate plus 60 postage from France to destination in Belgium. Chapter 7 Amendments, New Conventions, and the Operations of the Steamship Lines Additional Articles to the United States-Bremen 1847 Convention As one of the measures taken to strengthen the au- thority of the German Confederation (the Bund), un- der the aegis of Admiral Brommy a navy was created in 1849. Subsequent disagreement between the Frank- furt parliament and Prussia over schemes for the uni- fication of the German states,1 forced the parliament to dissolve, and the navy was disbanded.2 At the auc- tion of its ships, a Bremen syndicate, headed by W. A. Fritze and Company and Karl Lehmkuhl, purchased two frigates for £26,250.3 One of these was Hansa, which had been Admiral Brommy's flagship (formerly United States of the Black Ball line), and the other was Erzherzog Johann (formerly Cunard's Acadia).4, Lehmkuhl's interest appears to have been primarily financial, with little activity in management. At least, a painting of the two ships clearly shows the Fritze house flag and the iron cross repeated on their paddle boxes.5 Hansa was allowed to retain her name, but Erzherzog Johann was rechristened Germania. Senator Arnold Duckwitz was interested in strength- ening transatlantic communication, and above all, of 1 William L. Langer, An Encyclopedia of World History, pp. 675-677. - Frank C. Bowen, A Century of Atlantic Travel: 1830- 1930, p. 72. 3C. R. Vernon Gibbs, Passenger Liners of the Western Ocean, p. 195. 4 N. R. P. Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 79. 0 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 195. preserving and augmenting, if possible, the service rendered by the Ocean Steam Navigation Company. He proposed to W. A. Fritze and Company that they place their two ships, Hansa and Germania, on the Bremen-New York run. At about the same time, the Bremen senate requested its resident minister in Washington, R. Schleiden, to try to have the Ocean Steam Navigation Company augment the service of Washington and Hermann by two additional steamers with the same specifications as those of the Fritze ships. If the United States postmaster general would not agree to this, Schleiden was then to attempt to se- cure a reduction in postage on mail conveyed directly between New York and Bremen. This was felt to be a necessary measure if the direct service was to com- pete equitably with the Prussian closed mail.6 Whether the Ocean line was, at that time, prepared to build new ships is not known. They were prepared to do so in 1856 when their subsidy was threatened. Postmaster General Campbell then reported: "The present contractors state that they are prepared to build new and swifter ships than those now on their lines, provided their contract is renewed." 7 Additional ships, however, would have meant an additional sub- sidy, which the postmaster general could recommend but only Congress and the President could grant. No documentary evidence relating to these negotia- 0 Christian Piefke, Geschichte der Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 7 U.S., Congress, Senate, Executive Document 5, 34th Cong., 3rd sess., serial 876, pt. 2: 772. 109 110 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY tions has been found. Piefke, however, states: 8 "The diplomatic measures of the wise and energetic Bremen business leader resulted in the production of a short written agreement, by which steamers Germania and Hansa were to take over the Atlantic traffic." This must be the agreement referred to in Article IX of the formal Additional Articles signed at Washington on 4 August 1853,9 which referred to "this arrangement, which supersedes the temporary arrangement of July 6, 1853." While a copy of this temporary arrangement has not been found, its terms must have been similar to those of the final formal arrangement. It will be remembered that the 1847 postal arrange- ment with Bremen dealt only with procedures for handling mail. The rate structure was included in the regulations. The Additional Articles of 4 August 1853 altered only Article VI of the 1847 arrangement, which dealt with the compensation of the Bremen mail agent. Primarily they were concerned with a complete re- vision of the rate structure originally included in the regulations. The provisions of the Additional Articles of 4 August 1853 are summarized as follows: I. Established exchange offices at New York and Bremen. II. Set an international rate for letters between all of the United States (including its territories) and Bremen For a letter not exceeding half an ounce 100 Above half an ounce but not over one ounce 20^ Above one ounce but not over two ounces 400 And 200 for each additional ounce or fraction thereof Prepayment was optional, but a partial payment of the international rate was not to be recognized. III. All of the states of the German Austrian Postal Union were to have the advantage of the 100 rate whenever their postage to or from Bremen was reduced to 50 or less. On correspondence between Bremen and those states that did not reduce their postage to 50 or less, the international rate for a single letter became 150. IV. The postage from or to countries beyond the United States or Bremen was to be added to the applicable international rate as set forth in Article II, or in Article III. The two post offices were to furnish each other with lists stating the foreign countries to which the foreign postage, and the amount thereof, must be absolutely prepaid, or left unpaid. Until such lists were furnished, mail to or from these countries was not to be exchanged. VI. Established the accounting as follows: The Bremen office was to pay the United States office per single- letter rate for unpaid letters posted in the United States, or prepaid letters posted in Bremen, when conveyed Under Article II, by U.S. steamer 90 Under Article II, by Bremen steamer 50 Under Article III, by U.S. steamer 140 Under Article III, by Bremen steamer 50 8 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, Chap. 22. 0 U.S., 16 Statutes-at-Large, 953-956. The United States office was to pay the Bremen office per single rate for unpaid letters posted in Bremen, or for prepaid letters posted in the United States, when conveyed Under Article II, by U.S. steamer 10 Under Article II, by Bremen steamer 50 Under Article III, by U.S. steamer 10 Under Article III, by Bremen steamer 100 "It is understood and agreed that, of the portion of the postage for which the United States office is to account to Bremen, as well as of what Bremen may collect, all but one cent a single letter is to go to the benefit of the proprietors of the Bremen line of steamers." VII. Arranged for the settlement of accounts between the two post offices. It also provided that: "the 20 per cent commission to the postmaster of Bremen, stipulated in Article VI of the arrangement of 1847, is to cease from and after the date these articles take effect." VIII. Provided for the mutual conveyance of dead and returned letters, and of official communications be- tween the two post offices, free of charge. IX. The arrangement, which superseded the temporary arrangement of 6 July 1853, was to go into effect on 15 August 1853, and was to continue in force unless annulled by mutual consent or three months notice by either party; "and it may also cease whenever the Bremen steamers cease running." Article VI shows only the gross debits and credits to be made by the two offices. The division of these rates between inland and sea postages has to be de- duced. For the 100 international rate the division was apparently 50 for United States inland, 40 for sea postage, and 10 for Bremen inland. In the event that the international rate became 150 when a German state did not reduce its Bremen transit postage to 50, the additional 50 postage included in the international rate belonged to the country that furnished the packet. The exchange office accounting for these rates is pre- sented in Table 24. In all of the countries which did not reduce their transit postage to or from Bremen to 50 or less, the rate was 70. All of the states made the reduction with the exception of Baden, Wurttemberg, and the Thurn and Taxis posts. In most of these states the monetary unit was the kreuzer and the florin. The 220 rate, therefore, was equated to 33 kreuzer, of which 9 kreuzer represented the transit and 24 kreuzer was attributed to sea and other postages. The only state to have a transit postage of less than 50 was Oldenburg. When this arrangement became effective, the transit rate between Bremen and Olden- burg was 30. As pointed out in Article VI, the steamship line was to receive as compensation all but one cent of the NUMBER 6 111 TABLE 24.—Exchange Office Accounting for United States-Bremen Mail (Under the 1853 Convention) Unpaid from U.S. Prepaid in U.S. Postage Rate American Bremen American Bremen Packet Packet Packet Packet International Rate of Ten Cents When addressed to Bremen: U.S. inland 50 50 5c (a) (a) Packet 4 4 (b) (a) 4 c Bremen inland 1 (b) (b) lc 1 International rate 10 — U.S. debit to Bremen — 9 5 — — U.S. credit to Bremen — — — 1 5 When addressed to rest of German Austrian Postal Union: U.S. inland 5 5 5 (a) (a) Packet 4 4 (b) (•) 4 Bremen inland 1 (b) (b) 1 1 International rate 10 — Union transit 5 (b) (b) 5 5 Rate 15 — U.S. debit to Bremen — 9 5 — — U.S. credit to Bremen — — — 6 10 International Rate of Fifteen Cents When addressed to those countries falling under Article III: U.S. inland 50 50 50 (•) (a) Packet 9 9 (b) (a) 90 Bremen inland 1 (b) (b) 1 1 International rate 15 — Union transit 7 (b) (b) 7 7 Rate 22 — U.S. debit to Bremen — 14 5 — — U.S. credit to Bremen — — — 8 17a Retained from prepayment by United States. b Retained from collection by Bremen. Bremen share of the postage. The agreement between Duckwitz and W. A. Fritze and Company provided that the sailing dates for Hansa and Germania be fitted in with those of Washington and Hermann so that a ship would leave every fourteen days from New York and Bremen.10 This schedule could not be maintained. Germania left Bremen on 3 August 1853 and did not arrive in New York until 26 August. Hansa left Bremen on 31 August 1853 and arrived in New York on 20 September. Since the normal run for the Ocean line ships was seventeen days, these long passages required that the schedule be readjusted. It appears that the Fritze Company did not maintain sailings for the pur- pose of carrying mail; they merely carried mail when Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. they did sail. At the request of Postmaster General Campbell, Hansa made a round voyage during Novem- ber-December 1853,11 after which the ships were laid up. Duckwitz expected a sailing in February which did not materialize, and only after repeated efforts was he able to induce Fritze and Company to establish a sched- ule of five sailings during 1854, beginning with a sail- ing of Germania in June and ending with a sailing of the same ship in October.12 On 26 October 1854, the Bremen City Post Office announced that the sched- uled trip of Germania on that day would not be under- 11 Ibid. 12 Ibid. Piefke states there was a schedule of 4 sailings, 3 of which were made. The Shipping and Commercial List shows 4 sailings actually made (see Table 25, this work). 112 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY taken "due to changing circumstances," and further sailings of the Bremen steamships would not take place that year. Piefke explains: 13 Fritze himself had decided this, because the Germania was once again in need of repair and the Hansa had no cargo of goods or passengers. To add to the serious embarrassment of the New York- Bremen Line, the steamers Washington and Hermann had discontinued trips for the winter months.14 A way out was found; unpaid letters went by the Prussian-American Line,15 paid letters went via England to Liverpool to New York by American steamers,16 and foreign letters were despatched by sailing vessels. It is suspected that the United States sent unpaid letters posted during this period as unpaid in the Prussian closed mail; letters prepaid with Bremen rates and endorsed to go via Bremen were sent as fully pre- paid in the Prussian closed mail. At least, they were treated in this manner in other years when the Ocean line ships failed to sail in winter. In January 1855 the two Fritze ships were char- tered to the British Government as troopships for the duration of the Crimean War. Upon their return, it was intended that the line and its mail service be re- vived. Germania was scheduled for a sailing in March 1857, which it did not make. Hansa made a round voyage during April-May and was scheduled to make another during June, which was canceled. In October 1857 they were chartered to the British East India Company as troopships for service in the Indian Mu- tiny. Upon her return to Bremen Hansa was sold, and as Indian Empire opened the Galway line's service to New York; Germania, now unseaworthy, was broken up on the Thames.17 The sailings of this line are presented in Table 25. Figure 70 illustrates a cover posted in Oxford, Ohio, on 14 September 1853, addressed to Hamburg. It is prepaid 150 by a strip of five 30 stamps of the 1851 13 Ibid. 14 There was no sailing from New York by the Ocean line between the Washington on 4 Nov. 1854 and the Hermann on 27 Jan. 1855. The Washington arrived in New York on 24 Dec. 1854, and the next arrival was by the Hermann on 18 Mar. 1855. lo This must refer to Prussian closed mail. 10 It is not clear whether this was a revival of the Bremen closed mail, or use of the open mail. The U.S. did not use cither of these routes for mail sent to Bremen. 17 Bonsor, North American Seaway, p. 80. TABLE 25.—W. A. Fritze & Company Sailings Arrival Date, New York Departure Ship Date, New York 1853 26 Aug. Germania 19 Sept. 20 Sept. Hansa 3 Oct. 17 Nov. Hansa 29 Nov. 20 Nov. Germania 1854 3 Dec. 10 July Germania 20 July 6 Aug. Hansa 26 Aug. 21 Sept. Germania 3 Oct. 9 Oct. Hansa 1857 17 Oct. Dna.a Germania Up 10 Apr. Dnsc 2 May Hansa 7 May Dna.a Hansa Up b 29 June Dnsc. a Did not arrive. b Sailing scheduled in Shipping and Commercial List. c Did not sail. issue. The New York marking is of type A of Figure 71 and shows a credit to Bremen of 100, indicating that the United States retained 50 for its inland post- age. The date in the New York packet marking is 19 September, which coincides with the date of sailing from New York of W. A. Fritze and Company's Ger- mania (see Table 25), which conveyed the first mail to Bremen under the convention of 1853. In accord- ance with the mail arrangements established by the convention of 1847, and not disturbed by the conven- tion of 1853, the New York exchange office made up a separate bag for mail addressed to the city of Ham- burg, which passed through the Bremen office as closed mail. This cover, therefore, bears no Bremen mark- ings, not even marking / of Figure 71, which usually appears on covers in transit through Bremen. Upon the reverse of the cover are two oval markings, ST.P.A./9 OCT. 53 and ST.P.A./10 OCT. 53 which are markings of the Hamburg City (state) Post Office (see N of Figure 71). There is also a double circle marking HAMBURG/2-3/20/10, which is a marking of the Hamburg local office dated 20 October. Evidently, the addressee had departed from Hamburg before the letter arrived. Delivery was attempted on 9 October, and on the following day the letter was sent to the NUMBER 6 113 mixKm7mjify/wrtt /J^rfm FIGURE 70.—COVER, from Oxford, O. [Ohio], to Hamburg, Germany, 1853. Hamburg local office where it waited until a forward- ing address was received. On 20 October it was for- warded to Post restante, Berlin, charged with the transit rate of 3 silbergroschen. There is a 3 in blue manuscript on the face of the cover. Only on letters conveyed by the Fritze Company ships does the credit of 100 to Bremen appear. Figure 72 presents a cover posed in Columbia, South Carolina, on 29 November 1853, prepaid 150 in stamps of the 1851 issue. It bears marking A of Figure 71 with the date of 3 December which indicates that it was sent by Germania on its 3 December 1853 sailing from New York (see Table 25). This cover passed in transit through the Bremen office and bears marking / of Figure 71 applied in red. Abandonment of Steamship Mail Subsidies by Congress After intensive and very expensive lobbying by E. K. Collins,18 Congress, on 21 July 1852, increased the subsidy granted the Collins line from $385,000 to $858,- 000 a year. During the next two years, opposition to the increased subsidy began to make itself evident. In his annual report for 1854 Postmaster General Camp- 18 Robert G. Albion, Square Riggers on Schedule, pp. 327— 328. bell called the attention of Congress to the great dis- crepancy between the subsidy granted to the Collins line and those given the other United States trans- atlantic lines, but rapid crossings of the Collins steam- ers were at the time inflating American prestige, and nothing was done about it. In his annual report for 1855, however, Campbell made specific recommendations to Congress. He asked that the six months' notice required by the act of 21 July 1852 be given and the increase in the Collins line subsidy withdrawn. He felt that Congress had already dealt very liberally with the line. He pointed out that Congress had relieved the line of the necessity for maintaining four passed midshipmen, which had been specified in the contract; that the Post Office Depart- ment had not sent out mail agents, whom the line was bound to accommodate and subsist. The Collins line was receiving $858,000 a year for performing only twenty-six trips, while the British gave the Cunard line $866,700 for performing fifty-two. He considered the increased compensation a mere gratuity, destroying all competition, attended by the most pernicious influences, and creating a monopoly having injurious effects upon the commercial interests of the country. In the follow- ing year the increase in the subsidy was withdrawn. Since all of the transatlantic lines ran to New York, commercial interests in other eastern and in soudiern 114 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 71 .■—MARKINGS on Bremen-Hamburg mail. ports felt that the subsidies were inflating the im- portance of the port of New York to their detriment. While it was believed that subsidies were necessary to maintain the lines, it was also felt that some of them should run to other ports. This feeling was reflected by Postmaster General Campbell in his report for 1856. He first called the attention of Congress to the fact that the contracts with the Bremen and Havre lines would expire on 1 June 1857. If these services were to be continued, he should be authorized to advertise and take such steps as were necessary to have them con- tinued. He then went on to say: In relation to these mail lines to foreign ports no reason is perceived why one port of the United States should be preferred to the exclusion of others. From the port of New York there now run four lines, embracing the branch from New Orleans to Havana, which receive from the treasury the yearly sum of one million four hundred and ninety-eight thousand dollars, and appropriations con- tinue to be asked for other lines running from the same port. The establishment of steam lines from any port adds con- siderably to its trade and importance, and the advantages arising therefrom should be distributed equally, as far as practicable, among the different States of the Union. In expressing this opinion, Campbell was reflecting the growing jealousy of the ports of Boston, Philadel- phia, and Baltimore, as well as those of the southern states. Congress did not renew the contracts of the Bremen and Havre lines. The Collins line contract, which was with the Navy Department, was to run until 1860. The appropriations bill for paying the annual mail sub- sidies for 1858, including that of the Collins line, touched off a long congressional debate. It was,during this debate that Congress changed its policy regarding the subsidization of mail steamship lines. It was alleged in the Senate by Toombs of Georgia and in the House by Davis of Mississippi that the sub- sidized mail lines to California, that is, the U.S. Mail Steamship Company running from New York to Aspin- wall and the Pacific Mail Steamship Company plying between Panama and San Francisco, had paid Cor- nelius Vanderbilt $40,000 a month for not competing with them, in other words, for not placing his ships on the Panama run after he closed his Nicaragua Transit. The payments were said to have been made to Vander- bilt during a year, beginning in May 1856, at the end of the year the payments increasing to $56,000 a month.19 While these were only allegations (they were not substantiated until 1860), they were believed. Al- though the standard of business and political ethics of that time did not allow great condemnation of Vander- bilt for his "blackmail" (for example, Toombs said he admired him) ,20 the allegations led Congress to believe that mail subsidies were no longer necessary. If tiiese steamship companies could pay over to Vanderbilt their entire subsidy and still operate at a profit, there was no need for the Treasury to support them. Although Vanderbilt's "blackmail" pertained to die lines carrying the California mail, the attitude created by the allegations carried over to the transatlantic lines. Fifty years later, during the "muckraking" period, Gustavus Myers wrote: 21 "There were indications tiiat for years a secret understanding had been in force between Collins and Vanderbilt by which they di- vided the mail subsidy funds. Ostensibly, however, in order to give no sign of collusion, tiiey went through the public appearance of warring upon each other." Myers does not document this statement, and no evi- dence of the existence of such an agreement has been found. Senator Toombs, however, intimated that such "U.S., Congress, Congressional Globe, 1857-58, pt. 3: 3029. 20 Ibid., p. 2843. 21 Gustavus Myers, History of Great American Fortunes, p. 284. NUMBER 6 115 ^^/r &;&■?? .& £$. ftS (y* J' v*< 6 s FIGURE 72.—COVER, from Columbia, S.C., to Bremervorde ?), Hannover, 1853. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) collusion might exist.22 It was in an atmosphere of sus- picion and jealousy, perhaps of revulsion, that Con- gress acted. Little of the nationalism that had had so much to do with the creation of the subsidies was evident. Senator Toombs said, in effect, that if foreign steamers would carry the United States mails cheaper than American steamers, they should be allowed to do it.23 This point was not debated. A clause, however, was inserted in the act that would force the post- master general to prefer American over foreign steam- ers if they departed from the same port for the same destination within three days of each otiier. On 14 June 1858, Congress passed the Appropria- tions Act, which provided (in addition to the clause just cited) that it would be unlawful for the post- master general to make any steamship or other new contract for carrying the mail on the sea for a longer period than two years, or for any compensation other than the sea and inland postages on the mails so trans- ported, when conveyed in American steamers.24 The compensation was limited to the sea postage only when conveyance was by a foreign steamer. The compen- sation for steamship lines provided by this act had been recommended by Postmaster General Aaron V. Brown in his annual report for 1857, and was already 22 Congressional Globe, 35 Cong., 1 sess., 1857-58, pt. 3: 2844. 23 Ibid., 2841. 21 11 Statutes at Large 364. being used on contracts with Cornelius Vanderbilt and the New York and Havre Steamship Company. The Vanderbilt European Line When Congress failed to renew the contracts of the Ocean and Havre lines in 1857, the postmaster gen- eral was faced with the problem of maintaining the United States packet service to Europe. In his annual report for 1857, he explained how he met the situation. He called attention to the fact that the contracts ex- pired on 1 June 1857, but it did not appear to him that Congress intended the service to Europe to be discontinued after their expiration. He, therefore, deemed it his duty to make temporary arrangements for the continuation of the service until Congress could take action. He then stated: The temporary contract for service on the Breman line is with Cornelius Vanderbilt, and upon the Havre line with the New York and Havre Steamship Company. Each contract provides for thirteen round trips annually; and the compensation to be paid is limited to the United States postages, sea and inland, accruing from the mail conveyed. . . Moreover, it appeared a fit occasion to inaugurate a system of self-sustaining ocean mail serv- ice; and I shall esteem it fortunate if the present tem- porary arrangements lead, as I trust they may, to the adopted of this as a permanent system. In 1855 Commodore Vanderbilt placed his North Star, which had served as his private yacht in 1853, 116 and Ariel on the run to Havre, via Southampton. He then attempted to secure a subsidy for a fortnightly service to Liverpool to alternate with the sailings of the Collins line.25 He failed in this attempt and dis- continued his sailings to Havre in the summer of 1856. On 13 June 1857 Ariel sailed from New York for Breman, via Southampton and Havre, carrying the first mail under Vanderbilt's contract. Although his contract provided for the conveyance of mail between New York and Breman, his ships also carried British and Prussian closed mail to Southampton, and French mail direct to Havre. Vanderbilt must have found the returns on the run to Havre satisfactory, but the run from Havre to Breman appears to have been un- profitable. North Star and Ariel carried steerage pas- sengers, something that the Collins line never did and that the Cunard line, up to this time, had refused to do.26 His new ship, Vanderbilt, one of the largest and speediest of her time, was not allowed to carry steerage passengers, was not allowed to sail in winter, and only on one occasion was allowed to make the run to Bremen. Vanderbilt had competition on the run between Bremen and New York during 1857. The British- owned European and American Steam Shipping Com- pany ran steamers Queen of the South, Indiana, Argo, and Jason between Bremen and New York, via South- ampton, for eleven round voyages between May and October 1857. At the end of that time these ships were taken over as troop transports in the Indian Mutiny. Postmaster General Brown explained to Congress the decrease of $5,491.74 in postage on the Bremen line as "owing to the fact that much of the time there have been several foreign steamers running and carrying ship letters on this line." 2T The Vanderbilt European line maintained its sched- uled sailings from New York from June through De- cember 1857, but in January 1858 the service collapsed. Ariel sailed from New York on 28 November 1857 and suffered sea damage on the run to Bremen. She did not return to New York until 4 May 1858. North Star sailed from New York on 26 December 1857, had similar difficulties, and did not arrive back in New- York until 13 February 1858, so badly in need of repair that she did not sail again until 17 April 1858. The scheduled sailings of 23 January and 20 February 1858 25 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 104. 20 Gibbs, Passenger Liners, p. 106. 2' Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 921, pt. 3: 969. SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY were not made. It also appeared that the scheduled sailing of 20 March would not be made. When Van- derbilt refused to run Vanderbilt to Bremen, the post- master general, in exasperation, made a trip contract with the Inman line for steamer Kangaroo to carry the Bremen mail to Liverpool.28 Letters prepaid with Bremen rates were sent in the Prussian closed mail as fully paid. If Vanderbilt was fined for this default, no record of it has been found. Piefke gives the Bremen reaction to this situation:29 So the Bremen-United States line was dependent upon the inferior Vanderbilt steamers, which were soon driven by sea damage into this or that harbor of refuge—and sud- denly, at the start of winter, their runs ceased altogether. As a consequence of these constant troubles one could not talk of a regular postal service. Even the American Post- master General confided to the Bremen Minister Resident that Vanderbilt had cheated him. Due to a sea accident of the Ariel, Post Director Dr. Bartsch announced that on the return journey to New York a large mail would, lack- ing other means, have to be sent as 'closed mail' by the Hapag steamer Hammonia.™ Bartsch spoke of the 'neces- sity caused by Vanderbilt's breaking his word' and con- cluded, 'the weight presses on our breast in this moment, and each day brings new trouble.' From a letter of Burgo- meister Duckwitz we find how 'odious' the thought has been that the Bremen mail had to be sent by a Hapag steamer. Not only does the above explain how the Bremen mail was sent to New York during this crisis, but it also gives some insight into the intense rivalry existing between Bremen and Hamburg. Figure 73 illustrates a cover posted in Baltimore, Maryland, on 19 March 1858, addressed to Prussia. It was prepaid 150, which is indicated by a PAID applied in red and a red crayon 15. It is endorsed "Via Bremen Steamer," which clearly shows that the mailer of die letter intended that it be sent by the Vanderbilt line to Bremen. The Vanderbilt ships, however, had not sailed from New York since 26 December 1857 and would not again sail until 17 April 1858. The New York office sent this letter as fully prepaid in the Prus- sian closed mail. This route is evidenced by the New York packet marking, similar to A of Figure 51, but showing American packet service and the boxed Aachen marking (P in Figure 51). The credit of lj>A S? s / SJ$ /•v *?^v i■>. J £t y+S* /* S Ss * ^f> FIGURE 73.—COVER, from Baltimore, Md., to [?], Prussia, 1858. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) accepted it as a fully paid Prussian closed-mail letter. The date in die New York marking is 20 March, the date Kangaroo sailed with a special mail intended to be sent via Bremen but forwarded as Prussian closed mail. While the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department lists Kangaroo among the Bremen steamers for that year, this letter shows that she car- ried a Prussian closed mail to Liverpool. During the summer of 1858, not only were the scheduled Vanderbilt sailings made, but additional sailings were added, the fleet being augmented by steamer Northern Light. In the fall, however, Van- derbilt decided to quit the Bremen run. On 2 October 1858, Vanderbilt sailed from New York on her only trip to Bremen. On 30 October 1858, Ariel sailed with the last mail conveyed to Bremen by the Vanderbilt European line. The voyage, however, was not com- pleted. Piefke explains: 31 Although the captain had to deliver the mail to the Weser, he landed her in Le Havre, 'because there was no hope of finding passengers in Bremen for the return trip.' Due to his arbitrary action, the letter bag had to be sent by rail via Belgium and Aachen to Bremen. Since the captain had no legitimate reason for his conduct, the company was liable for the high transit costs. 31 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. During 1857 steamer Vanderbilt made six round trips to Havre. Five of them were made in head-on competition with the Collins line steamers, Vanderbilt leaving New York on the same day as the Collins line ships. The postmaster general appears to have been extremely cooperative with Vanderbilt, for despite die fact that a heavy subsidy was being paid to die Collins line for carrying the mail, nevertheless, mails were sent to Southampton and Havre by Vanderbilt. During 1858 Vanderbilt made five round voyages to Havre. During 1859, after the Bremen run was discontinued, there were fifteen round voyages to Havre by Vanderbilt, Ariel, and Ocean Queen. During 1860 Vanderbilt ran Vanderbilt and Illinois to Havre for eleven round voyages. At the end of October he decided to quit the run and placed Illinois on the Panama service. The Post Office had scheduled a mail by Illinois to sail from New York on 3 November 1860. This mail was sent to Southampton by Borussia of the Hamburg-Ameri- can Line.32 Illinois' mail on the return trip was brought by Saxonia which arrived in New York on 6 Decem- ber 1860. 32 Report of Treasury auditor for Post Office Dept. ap- pended to Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1861. 118 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Problems of the Postmaster General During 1858 In his annual report for 1858, Postmaster General Brown explained his difficulties. He stated that since the expiration of the Bremen and Havre line contracts the United States mail service to Europe had not been established on a permanent basis. The Collins line con- tract was with the Navy Department and he, there- fore, had no power to enforce fulfillments or to annul the contract. Since the Navy Department had taken no action, and the temporary contracts for service to Southampton, Bremen, and Havre had expired on 1 June 1958, it was out of his power to engage other than temporary service by the single trip, "and the result has been that all service performed has been entirely of a temporary character." Commenting on the terms of the act of 14 June 1858, he asked: Can the service be obtained upon these terms? I believe it may be. If deemed expedient to employ foreign vessels, it is certain that parties now stand ready to take the mails for the sea postage. But shall this service be relinquished entirely to foreign steamers? and if not, will American lines contract under existing law? . . . Save during the winter months, there would be no difficulty in getting the mails carried on these terms; but for a period so short as two years, it is hardly probable that contracts with American lines could be obtained to carry regularly the year round. . The want of regularity heretofore has had the effect to give the advantage to the British lines. . Why may not the same regularity be established and main- tained by American ships? Let this be done, and no good reason is perceived why they may not carry an equal proportion of the mails, the postage of which would af- ford a fair compensation for the service. To supply a substitute service for the defunct Collins line, Postmaster General Brown made up what he called a "miscellaneous line." The lines, ships, and sailings utilized by him for this purpose are presented in Table 26. Examination of the list shows that the TABLE 26.—Collins Line and "Miscellaneous Lines'''' Sailings Arrival Date, New York Ship Departure Date, New York Comments 1857/58 1858/59 7 Dec. Baltic 16 Jan. 1858 18 Feb. Baltic 3 Feb.a Edinburgh 13 Feb. 5 Mar.a New York 13 Mar. 30 Mar.a City of Baltimore 10 Apr. 13 Apr.a City of Washington 24 Apr. 30 Apr. Kangaroo 8 May 12 May City of Baltimore 22 May 9 May a Vanderbilt b 22 May 23 May City of Washington 5 June 9 June Kangaroo 17 June 19 June Vanderbilt b 3 July 6 July City of Washington 17 July 1 Aug. Vanderbilt b 14 Aug. 18 Aug. City of Washington 28 Aug. 13 Sept. Vanderbilt b 2 Oct.8 Vigo 25 Sept. 27 Sept. City of Washington 9 Oct 12 Oct.a City of Baltimore 23 Oct. 26 Oct. Vigo 6 Nov. 9 Nov. Kangaroo 20 Nov. 23 Nov. City of Baltimore 4 Dec. 12 Dec. City of Washington 18 Dec. 26 Dec. Kangaroo 1 Jan.Last outward voyage for Collins line Last inward voyage for Collins line Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company Inman (Dales) line—to Liverpool Inman—to Liverpool Inman—to Liverpool Inman—from Liverpool Vanderbilt line—to Southampton Inman—NY. & Liverpool Inman—from Liverpool Vanderbilt—N.Y. & Southampton Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Vanderbilt—N.Y. & Southampton Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Vanderbilt—from Southampton Inman—first voyage Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Inman—to Liverpool Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool Inman—N.Y. & Liverpool a Not designated by the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department as carrying mail on this trip. b The Vanderbilt continued to Havre and may have carried French mail to that port on trips not designated as carrying mail to Southampton. NUMBER 6 119 only American ship to serve in this "line" was Vander- bilt. The list also shows the increasing reliance he placed upon the British-owned Inman line (called Dales line in the United States). By 1860 this line was matching the mail sailings of the Cunard line to and from Liverpool under contracts with the United States Post Office Department. By the time the Civil War began, the United States mail service to Europe was entirely in the hands of foreign steamers. The United States-Hamburg Convention The Hamburg Amerikanische Paketfahrt Aktien Gesellschaft was organized in 1847 for the purpose of running a line of sailing packets between Hamburg and New York. From its inception it was known in Germany as "Hapag,'J a contraction formed by the first letter of each word in its official name. In the United States and Great Britain it was called the Hamburg-American line. In 1853 the line decided to convert to steam, and after many delays ordered two iron screw steamers of about 2,000 tons from Caird & Co. of Greenock.33 The first of these, Borussia, sailed from Hamburg for New York on 1 June 1856, followed in the next month by the second ship, the Hammonia. The impending stringency in packet service led Post- master General Campbell to seek an agreement that would allow these ships to carry mail. In his annual report for 1856 he stated: An informal arrangement has been entered into with the free city of Hamburg for the exchange of mails, by the direct line of Hamburg steamers plying between that city and New York. The single rate of postage for letters is ten cents; no mails for places beyond Hamburg being transmitted by this line. The auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office De- partment reported that during the fiscal year ended 30 June 1857, the Hamburg line carried a total of 10,606 letters, 1,504 of which were sent to Hamburg, while 9,102 were received from Hamburg.34 Since the ships of this line, at that time, did not call at South- ampton, all the letters were between the city of Ham- burg and the United States. On 12 June 1857, a formal postal convention was signed in duplicate at Wash- ington.35 In his annual report for 1857, Postmaster 33 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 111. M Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 921, p. 1118. 33 16 Statutes at Large 958-960. 372-645 O—70-^—3 General Aaron V. Brown announced that a conven- tion had been concluded between the United States and Hamburg, and further stated that it was "similar in all respects to that existing between the United States and Bremen—the rates of postage under both being the same. It was finally executed in June last, and went into effect on the first of July." While the rate structure of the two conventions was identical, they differed in one major and in two minor respects. The clause that provided for paying the pro- prietors of the steamship line, included in Article VI of the United States-Bremen convention, was omitted in the United States-Hamburg convention. Under this clause the proprietors of the Bremen steamship line were to receive all but one cent a single letter of the postage accounted for by the United States to Bremen, as well as of the postage collected by Bremen. The omission of the clause from the United States-Ham- burg convention can only mean that the compensation of the Hamburg-American line rested upon a different kind of financial arrangement between the line and Hamburg. Minor differences resulted from the insertion of Article IX in the United States-Hamburg convention. This article provided that the sailing days of the Ham- burg-American ships were not to conflict with those of the Bremen and Havre lines. Article VII of the United States-Bremen convention had a clause that rescinded the twenty percent commission of the Bremen mail agent. This clause, of course, was excluded from the convention with Hamburg. In all other respects die United States-Hamburg convention was a verbatim copy of the United States-Bremen convention. What was the nature of the informal agreement that existed between the United States and Hamburg from June 1856 to 1 July 1857? Did New York apply a Hamburg packet marking? Was there an accounting between the post offices of the two countries? Prepaid covers addressed to Hamburg or unpaid letters marked for collection in the United States could explain how the New York office handled this mail. Unfortunately, none has been seen. The North German Lloyd The North German Lloyd had been plying between Bremen and London since 1856. In 1858 it announced a service between Bremerhaven and New York. This service, however, had been contemplated for some time. In 1857 Postmaster General Brown gave as one 120 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY of his reasons for concluding a temporary arrangement with Vanderbilt the fact that he "had official infor- mation of the intention of a Bremen company to put on a line of semi-monthly steamers, so as, in connexion with an increased American line, to secure a weekly communication with the United States." 3G On 19 May 1858, the Bremen authorities notified the German-Austrian Postal Union that the North German Lloyd steamers Bremen, Hudson, New York, and Weser would carry the mails every fourteen days to New York at the same low rates as the American steamers.37 On 19 June 1858, Bremen sailed from Bremerhaven inaugurating the service. She arrived in New York on 4 July 1858 and was scheduled to sail for Bremen on 10 July, but the sailing was postponed until 30 July, when she sailed from New York with the first mail conveyed by the Lloyd to Bremen. New York left Bremen on 14 August 1858 and arrived in New York on 28 August. She sailed from New York for Bremen on 11 September 1858.38 Article IX of the United States-Bremen convention provided that it might be terminated "whenever the Bremen steamers cease running." The agreement was not terminated, however, when Germania and Hansa stopped running. This is verified by the fact that ad- ditional articles to the convention were signed in 1860 and in 1864. What arrangements were made with the North German Lloyd in regard to its compensation are not known. Certain it is they were not the same as those made with W. A. Fritze and Company. The evidence of numerous covers carried by the ships of the North German Lloyd indicates that the United States reduced its inland postage from 50 to 30. It had been generally believed, however, by the author as well as by others,39 that the United States retained 3c1 on prepaid letters, but charged 5c" on unpaid letters. This is now known not to be true. Evidence shows that the United States inland postage was 3$ on unpaid as well as on prepaid letters. Since the United States-Bremen convention re- mained in force, the reduction of the United States inland postage to 30 had the effect of increasing the sea postage from 40 to 60 the single rate. This in- "a Senate Executive Document 11, 35 Cong., 1 sess., serial 921, pt. 3: 968. n7 Piefke, Bremischen Landespost, chap. 22. 38 Shipping and Comercial List appropriate issues. 30 See George E. Hargest, "The U.S.-Bremen Postal Con- vention of 1853 and the North German Lloyd Line," Chroni- cle, 17, 1 (Oct. 1964): 35. crease was the result of no reduction being made in the 100 internatioanl rate, and all but 10 of the Bremen share of the postage was to go to the benefit of the proprietors of the Bremen line of steamships. There are no additional articles to the 4 August 1853, United States-Bremen convention that would allow this change. Whatever was done to create it was arranged by correspondence, or by agreement between the Bremen resident minister and the United States postmaster general. No documentary evidence of such an agreement and no correspondence relating to this change have been found. Certain facts, however, should be mentioned. The United States-Bremen convention was the only postal convention entered into by the United States that prescribed the method of paying the steamship line that conveyed the mail. United States packets were paid according to contracts made between the Post Office Department and the American steamship line. The provisions relating to inland and sea postage contained in the postal conventions determined the amounts to be settled between the post offices of the contracting countries. A contract with a steamship company was a separate agreement, not necessarily affected by the postal convention governing the mails conveyed by the steamship line. Bremen contracted with the North Ger- man Lloyd for the direct mail service between New York and Bremen. The United States, however, con- tracted with the same line for a service between New York and Southampton, and under that agreement the Lloyd conveyed British treaty mail, Prussian closed mail, Belgian closed mail, and French mail. The com- pensation was the sea postage accruing on these mails. On 21 December 1857, steamship Borussia of the Hamburg-American line arrived in New York from Southampton, the line having introduced an inter- mediate call at this port.40 The postmaster general, however, did not immediately contract with the line for a service to England. He did not do so until May 1861. On 4 May 1861 Bavaria sailed from New York carrying the first United States mail to Southampton. With this sailing, the line changed its sailing dates to Saturdays, alternating with those of the North German Lloyd so that the two lines maintained a weekly service to that port. Direct mail from Hamburg for New York did not show debits or credits on letters dispatched to the United States. Normally, postal conventions prescribed the manner in which letters Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 111. NUMBER 6 121 were to be marked so that proper charges could be made, or credits taken, on dead or returned letters. The actual accounting for the mails was performed on the letter-bills, whose format was usually prescribed in the convention or in its regulations. Under the 4 August 1853 United States-Bremen and the United States- Hamburg conventions, letter-bill forms were not pre- scribed, and the conventions were mute on the matter of markings. Since Article VIII of each of these con- ventions provided for the mutual conveyance of dead or returned letters free of charge, there was, in reality, no reason for marking the letters with debits or credits. The Bremen and Hamburg offices did mark letters with amounts of postage that would assist them in their accounting and in the preparation of letter-bills. Some time during 1864 the Hamburg office introduced packet marks that showed debits or credits to the United States office, but this procedure was not adopted by the Bremen office. The 150 rate, which included 50 transit postage, was equated with 6/2 silbergroschen, or with 22 kreuzer. The 100 rate was equated with 10 grote in Bremen, and with 6 schillings in Hamburg. It was the custom of the Bremen and Hamburg offices to mark the letters with the German-Austrian Postal Union (transit) postage and with the postage representing the international 100 rate. On prepaid letters dispatched by the Bremen office to the United States, markings C and D of Fig- ure 71 were applied in red. Marking D indicated the international rate of 10 grote (100), which was the only part of the 150 rate in which the United States participated. Additionally, when the currency was sil- bergroschen, marking H was usually applied in red or blue ink or crayon. This set forth the Union postage of 2 silbergroschen and the international postage of 4y2 silbergroschen as separate items. Marking / ex- presses the same division in kreuzer. The Union postage of 6 kreuzer is written over the international postage of 16 kreuzer. Sometimes the amount indicating the inter- national postage is preceded by an F which abbre- viates the word FRANCO ("paid"). There was considerable irregularity in these mark- ings. Frequently letters will show only the Union post- age and sometimes only the international postage. In some cases, markings H and I (Figure 71) appear on the same letter. Usually letters prepaid in Germany do not bear a United States marking, and it is seldom possible to say whether they were conveyed by an American or German packet. Unpaid letters originating in the city of Bremen ad- dressed to the United States bear a black 10 (D of Figure 71), and a Bremen marking (E or F of Figure 71). Many of these covers do not show a United States marking, the 10 already on the letter being allowed to indicate the amount to be collected. After depreciated currency markings were introduced, the New York office applied markings in black similar to G of Figure 71. Markings D, F, and M of Figure 71 are the only ones that appear on a letter originating in Bremen addressed to San Francisco. This letter was conveyed by steamer A riel of the Vanderbilt European line which arrived in New York in the evening of 29 June 1858, its mail being processed the following day. An unpaid letter originating in Syke, Prussia, on 1 October 1858, is addressed to Louisville, Kentucky. It bears a circular BREMEN/2/IO marking in blue, showing that it arrived at the Bremen office on 2 Octo- ber. It also bears the marking of the Bremen City Post Office (E of Figure 71) with the date of 2/10, showing that it was dispatched from that office also on 2 Octo- ber. The Bremen City Post Office applied marking K of Figure 71 in blue ink. This shows the 5 grote (50) Union postage over the 10 grote (100) international rate. The Bremen office also applied a 2 in red crayon, indicating the Union postage in silbergroschen. The New York office marked the letter as in L in Figure 71 to indicate that 150 were to be collected in Louis- ville. This letter was conveyed by steamer North Star of the Vanderbilt European line which arrived in New York on 22 October 1857. Figure 74 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Bremen. It is franked with a 100 type V stamp of the 1857 issue. The New York office applied a marking similar to A in Figure 71, but with a credit 7, which shows that the United States retained only 30 out of the 100 rate for inland postage. There is no other marking on the cover. This cover is endorsed to steamer Bremen which sailed from New York on 29 September 1860. Figure 75 presents a cover posted in New York ad- dressed to Hamburg. It is franked with a 100 type V stamp of the 1857 issue. The New York office applied a marking similar to Q of Figure 71, but showing a credit 5, which indicates that the United States re- tained 50 out of the 100 prepayment as its inland postage. On the reverse is a marking of the Hamburg City Post Office (A7 of Figure 71) with the date of 16 December 1860. The letter is endorsed to Teutonia of the Hamburg-American line which sailed from New York on 1 December 1860. 122 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY V. -^ //■->s~is\. — tZ *_ < ? , f. * , . , / FIGURE 74.—COVER, from New York to Bremen, Germany, 1860. fatSLy^fQ^ 4^tsCsC<>~**-« •<* "f; / FIGURE 75.—COVER, from New York to Hamburg, Germany, 1860. NUMBER 6 123 Figure 76 illustrates a cover posted in Allentown, Pennsylvania, on 6 May 1862, addressed to Hanover. It is franked 150 by a 100 type / stamp and a 50 brown-yellow stamp of the 1861 issue. Although it is endorsed "p. Hamburg Steamer," the New York office sent it by a steamer of the North German Lloyd. It bears a marking similar to B of Figure 71 but is dated 10 May, without the year. On 10 May 1862, steamer Bremen sailed from New York. The Bremen office applied marking / of Figure 71 in blue ink. Figure 74 does not bear this marking because it was addressed to Bremen and did not pass in transit through the Bremen office. The credit of 12 in the New York mark- ing shows that the United States retained only 30 for its inland postage. Figure 77 illustrates a cover prepaid with the rare 220 rate. It was posted in Staunton, Virginia, ad- dressed to Hesse. Since the Grand Duchy of Hesse utilized the services of the Thurn and Taxis posts, which had not yet reduced their transit rate to that duchy to 50, the transit rate remained at 70, and the international rate became 150 under the provisions of Article III of the convention. Thus, the international rate of 150 plus 70 transit postage yielded a total rate of 220 (see Table 24). The letter is franked by a 120 stamp and a 100 type II stamp of the 1857 issue. The New York office applied a marking in red similar to Q of Figure 71 but with a credit 17 and the date 1 March. There is nothing on die cover to indicate the year date. Since the steamers of the Hamburg-American line sailed on the first of each month from 1858 to 1861, neither the year date nor the name of the steamer that conveyed this letter can be determined. Figure 78 presents a cover posted in Clermont, New York, addressed to Hanover. It is franked with a 100 type III stamp of the 1851 issue, and is endorsed "via Bremen." It bears a N. YORK I u.s. PKT/PAID marking dated 19 April. On 19 April 1856, the Washington of the Ocean line sailed from New York, and it is pre- sumed that she conveyed this letter to Bremen. The New York office credited Bremen with 10 of the 100 rate and marked the letter PAID TO BREMEN. Since the rate to Hanover was 150, this letter shows that the nonrecognition of a partial payment applied only to the 100 international rate. The gute groschen of Han- over was worth 30 in United States currency, and there were 12 pfennige to the gute groschen. The Bremen office applied an AMERICA/UBER BREMEN mark- ing to the letter, and rated it for a collection of 12/$ gute groschen in red crayon. The Hanover office crossed this out and marked it in blue crayon 1-8, meaning 1 gute groschen 8 pfennige, which, of course, was equal to 13^3 gute groschen or 50 in United States currency. Covers showing a credit of 10 to Bremen (see Table 24) are seldom seen. / m <£&JS/4<, % < \* FIGURE 76.—COVER, from Allentown, Pa., to Hannover [Hanover], Germany, 1862. 124 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 77.—COVER, from Staunton, Va., to Hessen, Germany, (Melvin W. Schuh collection) *y / &*"" ° 4J> 3* x '/J " y &#zjr&€* ~M. FIGURE 78.—COVER, from Clermont, N.Y., to Hanover, 1856. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) NUMBER 6 125 Revival of American Packet Service to Bremen After the Vanderbilt European line stopped its runs to Bremen in 1858 there was no American packet serv- ice to Bremen until 1866. In 1865 the Ruger Brothers of New York organized the North American Lloyd to operate a line of steamships between New York, Southampton, and Bremen. Their fleet was made up, for the most part, of steamers that had been released from service in the Civil War, and included the ex- Collins line steamers Atlantic and Baltic; the Erics- son, which had been chartered by the Collins line; and Mississippi and Merrimack, sister ships, which, like Western Metropolis, had served as troop transports. While primarily interested in the emigrant trade, the Ruger Brothers also sought and secured a mail contract. The Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current listed their sailings as by "U.S.M." steamers. Some of their sailing dates coincide with those listed in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant as by the Bremen line, under contract to the United States. The mail sailings of this line are presented in Table 27, as reported by the Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current. The North American Lloyd suspended operations in the fall of 1866, and evidently was reorganized by the Ruger Brothers as the New York and Bremen Steamship Company.41 In March of 1867, the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant listed sailings by the North German Lloyd and by a Bremen line. The sail- ing for 7 March 1867, listed in the U.S. Mail as by a Bremen line, coincides with a scheduled sailing of Western Metropolis of the New York and Bremen Steamship Company. The Shipping and Commercial List, however, does not show this scheduled sailing of Western Metropolis as by a U.S.M. steamer. If the postmaster general made a trip contract with the New York and Bremen Steamship Company for this voyage, he was disappointed, because the ship failed to sail. Although this line continued to operate until 1870, there is no evidence that its ships carried mail after March 1867. Figure 79 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Schwartzburg-Sonderhausen, Thuringia. The 150 rate under the United States-Bremen conven- tion of 4 August 1853 is prepaid by a 150 stamp issued in 1866. The proper credit of 60 is included in the New York postmark (see Table 24). This N. YORK 6 u.s. PKT./PAID marking bears the date of 20 September, but TABLE 27.—North American Lloyd Sailings Arrival Departure Date, Ship Date, New York New York 1866 1866/67 F/V" Atlantic 22 Feb. F/V » Ericsson 15 Mar. 9 Apr. Atlantic 12 Apr. F/V a Baltic 26 Apr. F/Va Mississippi 10 May F/Va Merrimack 17 May 2 May Ericsson 24 May 27 May Atlantic 31 May 9 June Baltic 14 June F/V' Western Metropolis 28 June 12 July Western Metropolis Returned 16 July Atlantic 19 July 6 Aug. Baltic Dns. b 9 Aug. 6 Aug. Baltic Dns. b 16 Aug. 12 July Western Metropolis 30 Aug. 6 Aug. Baltic 20 Sept. 25 Sept. Atlantic 4 Oct. (•) Western Metropolis Dns. b 7 Mar. a First voyage for the line. b Scheduled; did not sail. c Scheduled for the New York & Bremen Steamship Com- pany; date shown in U.S. Mail. there is nothing on the cover to indicate the year of use. There was, however, no sailing by an Ocean line ship from New York on 20 September in any year after 1850, and no ship of the Vanderbilt European line sailed from New York on 20 September in any year. As is indicated in Table 27, Baltic of the North Ameri- can Lloyd sailed from New York on 20 September 1866, which determines the year date of this cover. Since it has been thought that all American packet service ceased in 1858, this cover could have been, at some time in the past, condemned as fraudulent. The Galway Line The Irish migration to the United States during the 1850s led to the demand that steamship service be- tween the United States and a port in Ireland be established. Situated as it was on the west coast of Ireland, 300 miles nearer New York than Liverpool, the port of Galway attracted the attention of a group of businessmen who, in 1850, sought to run a line 11 Ibid., p. 240. 126 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY -7» S* V *?-?& FIGURE 79.—COVER, from New York to Schwartz[burg-]Sondershause[n], Thuringen [Thuringia, Germany], 1866. of steamers between Galway and New York. Although their efforts in this regard have been described as "farcical," 42 they did succeed in securing the comple- tion of the Midland and Great Western Railway which connected Galway with Dublin. In 1858 John Orr Lever, a Manchester business man, and a group of associates, organized the Atlantic Steam Navigation Company for the purpose of operat- ing a line of steamships between Galway, Halifax, and New York.43 From its inception the company was known as the Galway line. Lever's plans extended far beyond the emigrant traffic. Since the steaming time from New York to Galway was twenty-four hours less than to Liverpool, he hoped by the use of steamers of the highest speed and excellent accommodations to outstrip the Cunarders. Also involved in his scheme was a call at St. Johns, Newfoundland, whence the latest news could be telegraphed to the United States. He planned that the passage time from Galway to St. Johns would be only six days.44 By various means he secured financial backing, and through the support of Irish Nationalists, a mail con- tract from the British government. Under the terms of "Gibbs, p. 141. 43 Bonsor, p. 161. "Gibbs, p. 141. this contract, there would be sailings twice a month from Galway, to Boston or New York, alternately. The passage time to Newfoundland was to be six days, and New York was to be reached in another six days. The contract was to become effective in June I860.45 Although four vessels were ordered built by the company, it was decided to start operations with char- tered tonnage. Hansa (formerly the United States), chartered from W. A. Fritze and Company, was re- named Indian Empire, and made die initial sailing for the line. She sailed from Galway on 19 June 1858 and required twelve instead of the forecasted eight days to reach Halifax. The next voyage was taken by Prince Albert, which required ten days to reach Halifax. Alto- gether eleven vessels were chartered, most of which made only one or two voyages for the line, and none were able to meet the time-schedule prescribed by the contract. The first of the four vessels ordered by the company, the Connaught, was not delivered in time to make a scheduled sailing on 26 June, and did not sail until 10 July 1860. Her speed was disappointing, since she required eight instead of six days to reach St. Johns. On her second voyage she was destroyed by fire in mid- Ibid. NUMBER 6 127 Atlantic.,G The speed of the remaining three vessels, Hibernia, Columbia and Anglia, was equally disap- pointing. In March 1861 the company purchased ex- Collins liner Adriatic, then running for the North Atlantic Steamship Company. Adriatic proved to be the only ship in the company's fleet able to meet the terms of the mail contract, but she arrived on the scene too late. In June 1861 the British postmaster general announced that he had canceled the mail contract of the Galway line.47 In August 1863 the British Post Office revived the mail contract of the Galway line. Although Liverpool was to be the British terminal port, the vessels were to call at Galway outwards and homewards. The revived sailings continued until the company, always in finan- cial difficulties, collapsed in February 1864. Figure 80 illustrates a cover posted in Boston ad- dressed to Tunis. It is prepaid 330 by a strip of three of the 100 type V stamps and a 30 stamp of the 1857 issue. On the reverse is a BOSTON BR. PKT/AUG/ 7 mark- ing in black. Of particular interest is the endorsement TABLE 28.— The Mail Sailing of the Galway Line Arrival Departure Date, Ship Port Date, U.S. U.S. 1860 9 July Parana New York 16 July 23 July Connaught Boston 7 Aug. 4 Aug. Prince Albert New York 14 Aug. 18 Aug. Parana Boston 27 Aug. 9 Sept. Prince Albert New York 12 Sept. 7 Nov. Prince Albert 1861 New York 20 Nov. Adriatic New York 13 Mar. 15 Mar. Prince Albert New York 26 Mar. 27 Apr. Columbia Boston 30 Apr. 2 May Adriatic New York 13 May 18 May Parana 1863 Boston 28 May Hibernia Boston 8 Sept. 11 Sept. Adriatic New York 21 Sept. 26 Sept. Anglia Boston 6 Oct. 12 Oct. Columbia New York 19 Oct. 23 Oct. Hibernia Boston 3 Nov. 10 Nov. Adriatic 1864 New York 17 Nov. 3 Jan. Adriatic New York 12 Jan. Columbia Boston 25 Jan. 3 Feb. Hibernia New York 9 Feb. 40 Bonsor ,p. 163. 17 Gibbs, p. 142. "pr Galway Line." The London marking on the face shows the year to be 1860. In 1860 there were two available routes and rates to Tunis: (1) British mail, via Southampton, to Mar- seilles, and thence by French packet to Tunis at a rate of 330 for a quarter-ounce letter, prepayment com- pulsory; (2) French mail at a rate of 300 per quarter ounce, prepayment optional. The United States- French convention of 2 March 1857 provided for mail by British packet from Boston or New York to Liver- pool, but made no provision for mail from New York to Galway. French mails were therefore not made up for conveyance by the ships of the Galway line. Since this cover is endorsed to the Galway line, it could be sent only at the British mail rate. The Boston office retained the United States inland postage of 50 and gave Great Britain credit for the remainder of the prepayment. This is indicated by a red crayon 28 on the face. The date of 7 August in the Boston mark- ing on the reverse indicates that it was conveyed across the Atlantic by Connaught on its only eastward voyage. Irregularities in Sailings of the Steamship Lines Some irregularities in the sailings of the steamship lines and the resultant effect on the carriage of mail have already been noted. There were, however, other sailing irregularities, failures, and changes of sailing dates that should be mentioned. These will be consid- ered as nearly as possible in chronological order. R.M.S. Hibernia of the Cunard line arrived in Bos- ton on 16 August and sailed for Halifax and Liverpool on 29 August 1849. Maginnis notes "Hibernia on this trip sprang a leak, and returned to Halifax and left passengers and mails; then she came to New York for repairs, and sailed on 29 September for Liverpool di- rect with 19 passengers." 4S How the mails were for- warded from Halifax to Liverpool is not known, and Cunard records are not helpful on this point. On 7 December 1850, Atlantic of the Collins line sailed from New York for Liverpool. On her return voyage, when far out in the Atlantic, she fractured her paddle shaft and was forced to return to Queenstown under sail.49 As a result of this accident, she was long 48 Arthur J. Maginnis, The Atlantic Ferry, Its Ships, Men and Working, footnote, p. 26. 49 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 56. 128 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY K*-v /y>^£y~. tAy^y r- r *<£ < 't2"^7t^-^ ' ¥^^r S ■ /fa~-/z*te**L £~~o&rJ^' FIGURE 85.—COVER, from Philadelphia to Liverpool, 1857. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) 1857, did not arrive back in New York until diat day, and did not sail until 24 October 1857. There was, therefore, to be only one sailing by die line during October. Although there is nothing relating to it in the report of the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department, this cover indicates that the postmaster general made a trip contract with the Inman line for the services of City of Washington to convey the mail to Liverpool. The credit 3 in the Philadelphia packet marking indicates American packet service by a con- tract packet. This marking is dated 14 October, and City of Washington sailed from New York on Thurs- day, 15 October 1857. Since the cover bears an endorsement, the sailing must have been publicly an- nounced. This is the earliest cover noted by die author showing service by an Inman line ship as a contract packet. In June 1857 the provisional government of Canada arranged with the Montreal Ocean Steam Ship Com- pany (Allan line) for a weekly conveyance of mail to Liverpool. In order to increase the service from fort- nightly to weekly, new steamships had to be built. An annual subsidy of £42,000 was granted, and shortly thereafter it was increased to double that figure. The line was plying between Liverpool and Quebec be- tween April and October, inclusive, and between Liver- pool and Portland, Maine, during the remainder of the year when the St. Lawrence River was closed to navigation. The weekly service came into operation in April 1859.61 In his annual report for 1859 Postmaster General Joseph Holt said of the Allan line: This line is hereafter to run weekly, Portland being the terminus on this side during the winter, and Quebec during the summer season; and in connexion with the Grand Trunk railway, over the Victoria bridge at Montreal, now completed, it will afford the means of the most direct and probably the most expeditious communication between Chicago and Liverpool. Arrangements have been made with the Canadian post office department to transport, for the sea postage, any mails it may be desirable to send by this line; and, in order to give them as much expedition as possible, it is intended to have Chicago and Detroit, as well as Portland, constituted offices of exchange for United States and British mails. Bags will then be made up at each of these offices, and will not be opened until they reach Liverpool. The running time from Chicago to Portland, via Detroit, Toronto, &c, is not to exceed forty-eight hours; and either from Portland or from the contemplated termi- nus of the railway, near the mouth of the St. Lawrence, where the mails are to be transferred to and from the steamships, the distance to Liverpool is several hundred miles less than from New York. Additional articles to the United States-British treaty of 15 December 1848 creating Portland, Maine, an exchange office were signed at Washington on Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 84. NUMBER 6 135 11 January and at London on 3 February 1859.62 Significant portions of these articles are summarized as follows: I. Established an exchange office at Portland for the ex- change of United States and European mails with the British offices of Liverpool and London by means of United States, British, or Canadian mail packets plying between Liverpool and Portland. II. Provided that the offices of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia might exchange mails with the offices of London and Liverpool, respectively, by way of Portland, in the same manner as mails are now being exchanged by United States and British packets plying between New York and Liverpool, and Boston and Liverpool. III. The mails forwarded by the Portland Office to the Liverpool office were to comprise the correspondence for all parts of the United Kingdom, except the city of London and its suburbs. The mails for London would comprise all corre- spondence for that city and its suburbs, and for countries in transit through the United Kingdom. IV. Mails forwarded from the offices of London and Liver- pool to Portland would comprise all the correspondence for the United States, except the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. The mails forwarded by the offices of London and Liverpool to Boston, New York, and Philadelphia would comprise the mails destined for each of those cities, respectively. Aldiough the reports of the auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Depatrment show that the Cana- dian (Allan) line carried much American packet Brit- ish mail after 1860, Portland exchange office markings are scarce. The above mail arrangements point to the reason for their scarcity. The offices of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia could make up a mail, direct it to one of the British offices, and send it to Portland for conveyance to Liver- pool. The mail so sent was not confined to that orig- inating in the respective city, and would bear the mark- ing of the office that sent it to Portland. The only mail made up at Portland was mail specifically directed to that office by the local offices. On the other hand, mails received from the British offices at Portland and di- rected to the New York, Boston, or Philadelphia offices contained only the mail addressed to those cities. Mail addressed to other parts of the United States passed through the Portland office and bore a Portland mark- ing. This may explain why Portland markings are more frequently seen on incoming than on outgoing mail. Additional articles to the United States-British treaty were signed at London on 25 November, and at e2 16 Statutes at Large 824. 372-645 0—70 10 Washington on 14 December 1859,63 creating ex- change offices at Chicago and Detroit in the United States and at Cork, Dublin, and Galway in the United Kingdom. These offices were to exchange mails with each other by means of British, United States, and Canadian mail packets. It was not prescribed that the packet ply between Liverpool and Portland or River du Loup. The Portland office was also to exchange mails with the offices at Dublin, Cork, and Galway, but was henceforth to exchange mails with the offices at London, Liverpool, and Cork only by means of the Canadian mail packets (Article III). Article IV provided that the "description of letters, &c, of the mails exchanged shall be arranged by cor- respondence between the British and United States Post-Offices." What these arrangements were is not known. The very few British mail covers seen which bear a Chicago or Detroit packet marking originated in midwestern towns. It has been noted, however, that some British mail covers posted in Chicago were sent to Boston or New York and bear markings of those exchange offices. It is evident, therefore, that letters posted in the midwestern towns and sent in British mails did not have to be conveyed by the Canadian (Allan) line. At the time these articles were signed, the Allan line did not call at Queenstown, the port for the city of Cork. Mails exchanged between Portland and Cork, therefore, were routed from Liverpool to Holyhead, and thence across the Irish sea by the packets of the City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, a twice-a-day service, to Kingstown (near Dublin)64 and thence by rail to Cork. Both the Inman and Cunard lines intro- duced a call at Queenstown in 1859.65 In June 1860 the Allan line started to call at Moville, the port for the city of Londonderry, which was made an exchange office on 21 July I860.66 In 1861 a direct Allan line service to Glasgow was inaugurated. In anticipation of this announced service, additional articles creating an exchange office at Glasgow were signed at London on 13 August and at Washington on 1 September I860.67 On 26 September at London and on 19 October 1863 at Washington, additional articles to the United States-British treaty were signed creating an exchange "3 Ibid., 825. 04 Thomas Rainey, Ocean Steam Navigation and the Ocean Post, paper by Pliny Miles, appendix, p. 193. 05 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, pp. 16 and 63. 00 16 Statutes at Large, 826. 07 Ibid., p. 827. 136 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY office at San Francisco,68 which was to receive and distribute mails. It was not, however, to dispatch mails to die British offices. There are, therefore, no San Francisco markings that show debits or credits to Great Britain. In the boom days immediately following the Civil War, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad availed itself of the opportunity of purchasing from the United States Navy four vessels whose services the Navy no longer required. According to Bonsor, these ships were renamed Somerset, Carroll, Worcester, and Allegany after four Maryland counties.69 Although built for coastal service, the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad orga- nized the Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Com- pany with a view to placing these 1,250-ton wooden screw steamers on the transatlantic ferry for the pur- pose of carrying freight and mail, if a mail contract could be secured. The Post Office Department appears to have given the line its full cooperation, for not only was a mail contract awarded, but Baltimore was made an ex- change, office by additional articles to the United States-British treaty, signed at Washington on 11 No- vember 1865.70 Staff reports a British Post Office order of 23 April 1866, which notes the establishment of the new line of packets and states that sailings would be at "irregular intervals." 71 Of greater interest, however, it the fact that all correspondence addressed to the city of Baltimore, the District of Columbia, and all southern, southeastern, and central states bordering the Mississippi—nineteen in all—would be sent by this line, "if not specifically addressed to be otherwise sent." During 1865 Allegany was placed on the New York- Baltimore run and was wrecked off Long Island on 5 December 1865. When die mail service was inaugu- rated, therefore, it was maintained by the three re- maining ships. During 1866 twelve round voyages were made between Liverpool and Baltimore, but during 1867 only seven were made, and in 1868 the service was discontinued.72 Numerous covers posted in the area to be served by this line have been noted. Most of them bear an endorsement indicating that they were to be sent through New York or Boston. Even when 08 Ibid., p. 830. 68 Bonsor, North Atlantic Seaway, p. 233. 70 16 Statutes at Large, p. 832. 71 Frank Staff, The Transatlantic Mail, pp. 152-153. 72 Cedric Ridgely-Nevitt, "The Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Line," Steamboat Bill 95 (Fall 1965) : 85. such letters were not so endorsed, their early dispatch required that they be sent to New York or Boston. As a result, covers showing a Baltimore exchange office marking for British mail service are rare, and none is illustrated here. Although there were no additional articles to die United States-French convention of 2 March 1857, creating Baltimore an exchange office, the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant in repeated issues during 1867 notes Baltimore as an exchange office for French mail. That it was an exchange office at least for the receipt and distribution of French mail is attested by Figure 86. This double-rate letter was posted in Paris on 25 June 1867, addressed to New Orleans. It bears a double-rate credit of 180 for American packet serv- ice through England. The BALTIMORE AM. PKT./PAID/ JUL/9/18 6 7 marking (which ties the French stamps) is in red. On 9 July 1867, Worcester of the Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Company arrived in Balti- more from Liverpool. This is the only cover known to the author whose conveyance can definitely be at- tributed to this steamship line. The Additional Exchange Offices Under the United States^French Convention of 2 March 1857 Additional articles to the United States-French con- vention of 2 March 1857 were signed at Washington on 22 February and at Paris on 8 March 1861.73 The modifications made by these articles to the arrange- ments included in the original convention were extensive. Article I provided for the exchange of correspond- ence "by Canadian mail packets plying between Liver- pool and Portland, or between Liverpool and River du Loup." Article II provided that the articles of the conven- tion which applied to letters exchanged between the French and United States post offices "by means of British packets and other British steam-vessels per- forming regular service between the ports of Great Britain and the ports of the United States, shall apply to letters which shall be exchanged between the two post-offices" when conveyed by Canadian packets. This article created the peculiar situation of treating French 73 16 Statutes at Large 890. NUMBER 6 137 tS-tsty^LX to 7 ^ b'y *^'dL.<=>/4l <£^^^V ^^ k±y/2 6&£Z4^ i FIGURE 86.—COVER, from Paris to New Orleans, 1867. (James E. Schofield collection) mail conveyed by the Canadian (Allan) line as being conveyed by British packets, while British and Prus- sian closed-mail letters conveyed by the same line were treated as being conveyed by American packets. Article III established an additional exchange office at Paris, for France, and created offices at Portland, Detroit, and Chicago, for the United States. The office at San Francisco was discontinued. Article IV provided that the three French offices correspond with the offices at New York, Boston, and Philadelphia by means of United States, British, and Canadian packets; and with the offices of Portland, Detroit, and Chicago by means of the Canadian packets only. Article V referred to an appended table which de- scribed the origin and destination of mails and the packet lines by which the mails were to be exchanged. The packet lines included were: New York and Havre; Bremen and New York, via Southampton; Liverpool and New York; Liverpool and Boston; and Liverpool and Portland or River du Loup. It should be noted that the New York and Hamburg packet line is not included. It was provided, however, that these arrangements could be modified by correspondence be- tween the two post offices. Although the mail arrangements set forth in the table are exceedingly complicated, the relations be- tween the French offices and the offices at Portland, Detroit, and Chicago may be summarized as follows: The French exchange offices were to correspond with the offices at Detroit by means of Canadian packets for mails originating in or destined for the States of Michigan, Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky; with the office at Chicago by means of Canadian packets for mails originating in or destined for the States of Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and Missouri, and the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska; and with the office at Portland by means of Canadian packets for mail originating in or destined for all of the United States and its territories (except those mentioned above as related to the offices of Detroit and Chicago, and mails to or from the cities of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, as well as mails to or from California, Oregon, and the territory of Washington, which were to pass through the New York office). The mails sent from or received at the Boston Office, via Portland or. River du Loup, were to comprise of the mails of the city of Boston only; the mails sent from or received at the Philadelphia office, via Portland or River du Loup, were to comprise of the mail of the city of Philadelphia only; the mails sent from or received at the New York office, via Portland or River du Loup, were to comprise of the mails of the city of New York, California, Oregon, and the territory of Washington. By Article VI these articles were to come into opera- tion on 1 April 1861. 138 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY The Additional Exchange Offices Under the United States-Prussian Closed-Mail Convention Additional articles to the United States-Prussian closed-mail convention were signed at Washington on 28 December 1860, and at Berlin on 24 April 1861, creating United States exchange offices at Portland, Detroit, and Chicago which were to correspond with the Prussian office at Aachen by means of Canadian mail packets.74 By Article II, "The description of let- ters, &c, which shall comprise the closed mails (ex- changed between the above offices) . shall be from time to time arranged by correspondence be- tween the Post-Office Departments of the two coun- tries.'' By Article III, the two post offices were to ac- count to each other for the mail exchanged by means of Canadian packets, "precisely in the same manner as if the sea transportation were performed by a United States packet between New York and Liver- pool." By Article IV, these articles were to "go into effect in each country at the expiration of fifteen days from the time notice is received of their being con- cluded." The exact date upon which these articles went into effect is not known, but considering the preceding provision, they probably went into effect in the United States about the middle of May 1861. What arrangements were made between the post offices of the United States and Prussia regarding the origin and destination of mail exchanged between the offices of Portland, Detroit, and Chicago and the office at Aachen are not known. It must be emphasized, how- ever, that by Article I, the exchange of Prussian closed mails between these offices could only be effected by Canadian mail packets. In his annual report for 1861, Postmaster General Montgomery Blair mentioned the additional articles to the United States-French conven- tion, and then went on to say, "Additional articles to the postal convention with Prussia, of the same char- acter, have been agreed upon with the general post office at Berlin. . . These arrangements have greatly expedited the transmission of European correspond- ence to and from the western States." This leads one to conclude that it is not unlikely that similar condi- tions for mail originating in or destined for the same places as set forth in the United States-French conven- tion were applied to the Prussian closed mail. 71 Ibid., 978. Covers Conveyed by the Allan Line Figure 87 illustrates a cover posted in Bath, Maine, addressed to Liverpool. It is prepaid 240 by two 120 stamps (Plate III) issued in 1860. The postal clerk evidently had difficulty in canceling the black stamps, struck the left stamp twice, and then struck the post- mark at bottom center of the cover. This cover passed through the Portland office in British mail and received a PORTLAND ME. AM. PKT./ 3 /MAR/ I 6 / I 8 6 I marking in red. The 3 in this marking indicates a credit to Great Britain for her inland postage, the United States re- taining 160 packet and 50 inland postages. North Briton of the Allan line sailed from Portland on 16 March 1861, and it is presumed that this ship conveyed the letter to Liverpool. The Allan line packets sailed from Portland or River du Loup on Saturdays. According to the French mail arrangements, Boston could send a bag to Portland which was to include only mail originating in that city. The Boston exchange office markings for mail thus sent show Saturday dates. These markings, of course, show credits indicating British packet service by French mail. When Boston forwarded French mail by the Cun- ard line, its markings bear Wednesday dates when the ship sailed from Boston, or Tuesday dates when the ship sailed from New York. A Boston marking showing a credit that indicates British packet service by French mail and a Saturday date, therefore, discloses that the cover was sent by Boston to Portland for conveyance by the Allan line. Few covers endorsed to Allan line ships have been noted, and all of them were posted during the "winter" season when the ships ran from Portland. Figure 88 illustrates a cover which originated in Bos- ton, addressed to Paris. It is prepaid 150 by stamps of the 1861 issue, and is endorsed to Norwegian of the Allan line. The Boston marking shows a single-rate credit of 120 to France, indicating British packet serv- ice. The date in the Boston marking is 26 April (1862), a Saturday, and the Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current discloses that Norwegian sailed from Portland on that date. Figure 89 illustrates a cover posted in Fond du Lac, Wisconsin, on 26 August 1861, addressed to Switzer- land. It is prepaid 210, the single rate via French mail, by two 100 stamps and a 10 stamp of the 1861 issue. This is a very early use of the stamps on a cover to a foreign country. The Fond du Lac post office sent the letter to the Detroit exchange office, complying with the requirement that letters from Wisconsin to be sent NUMBER 6 139 fj /Jr^I^f/i^ijAy/j/rt^c^^ £aA rlnwt 4^'f^p j^/i^^t^ fi^r^ L #0 & yu f < /jLai *~ & J ^f,lW~/'^r Cl2 HS^ FIGURE 87.—COVER, from Bath, Me. [Maine], to Liverpool, England, 1861. in French mail be forwarded to that office for trans- mission by Canadian packets. The Detroit office ap- plied in red a DETROIT MICH/PAID IS/AUG/29 ex- change-office marking, the 18 indicating the correct credit to France for a single-rate letter conveyed by British packet. The exchange office marking did not show whether conveyance was by British or American packet, and, in order to emphasize that the letters were rated as by British packet, the boxed BR. SERVICE mark- ing (K of Figure 42) was applied in red. This marking was designed for use on incoming letters, and it is unusual to find it on a letter forwarded from the United States. The date of 29 August (1861) in the exchange office marking shows the date on which the mails were made up at die Detroit office for the sailing of Bohe- mian from River du Loup on 31 August 1861. Figure 90 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in Kanalle Depot, Illinois, on 11 November 1865, ad- dressed to Paris. As was required by regulations, the postal clerk marked the rate on the letter by use of a handstamp containing the figure 15 in an oval, but ap- plied it in blue instead of the required black ink. He also wrote France upon the letter. Since this letter originated in Illinois, it was sent to the Chicago ex- change office. The Chicago office ascertained that the letter weighed over a quarter ounce, and the rating by the Kanalle Depot post office was, therefore, in- correct. Not having a stamp inscribed insufficiently rated, it was marked INSUFFICIENTLY/PREPAID in blue ink. Since a partial payment was not recognized, this marking would not confuse the French. The letter was also struck with an exchange office marking in- scribed CHICAGO ILL/6, which bears no date and is in blue. The 6 in this marking indicates a double-rate debit to France of 60 for British packet service. The French exchange office marking (H of Figure 43) was applied at Paris, and that office rated the letter for a collection of two 8-decime rates by applying a 16 in black. Figure 91 illustrates an unpaid letter posted in Ot- tawa, Illinois, on 1 December 1862, addressed to Wiborg, Finland. The postal clerk at the Ottawa post office endorsed the letter via Prussian Close mail, and, complying with regulations, applied a 30 to indicate the 300 international rate for a single-rate Prussian closed-mail letter. Both the Ottawa postmark and the 30 are in blue ink. The letter was forwarded to the Chicago exchange office for the required transmission by Canadian packet. The Chicago office applied an ex- change office marking inscribed CHICAGO ILL AM. PKT./2 3 in blue ink. As is die case with the exchange office marking shown on the cover illustrated in Figure 140 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 7 :&L '. 6 ^ ( / c ( r < -^ ^ <. c<. t • "&3. ..."- V* *£* FIGURE 95.—COVER, from Liverpool to New York, 1866. Chapter 8 Postal Conventions Effective After 1 January 1868 The Paris Conference Sir: Many embarrassments to foreign correspondents exist in this, and probably in other postal departments, which can be remedied only by international concert of action. The difference in postal principles, as well as postal details or arrangement, in the several countries of both continents contributes to the result. Great diversity in rates prevails between the same points, in some instances as many as six different rates, according to the route of transit. Mis- takes are perpetually recurring, arising from the complexity of present arrangements, and operate to serious delay and expense of correspondents. . It is believed that a conference between fit representa- tives delegated by the several post departments of the principal corresponding countries of Europe and America, and to meet at some convenient point in Europe, would greatly facilitate the postal arrangements in which they are respectively interested. Thus did Postmaster General Montgomery Blair write to Secretary of State William H. Seward on 4 August 1862.1 As a result of this letter a call for an international conference was issued, and on 11 May 1863, delegates from eighteen postal administrations assembled at Paris. After a general exchange of ideas and much deliberation, a list of thirty-one rules (or principles) was agreed upon.2 Only those sections that relate to letter mail are here summarized: 2. Prepayment should be optional, but unpaid letters must bear a moderate additional charge. 3. Letters insufficiently prepaid by postal stamps must be rated as unpaid, deducting, however, the value of the stamps affixed. 1 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1862, p. 165. 2 Ibid., 1863, pp. 11-13. 6. Letters prepaid to destination shall not be charged with any additional rate whatever on delivery. 7, 8, and 9. The single rate upon international letters shall be applied to each standard weight of 15 grammes (metric system) or fractional part of it, to the exclusion of all other weight systems. 12. The weight stated by the despatching office must be accepted by the receiving office, except in case of mani- fest error. 16. The rates upon international letters should be the same, by whatever route the mails may be conveyed. 17. Where different routes exist, the sender may indicate the route desired on the address, or by the rate pre- paid. In the absence of such indication the despatch- ing office will determine the route most advantageous to the public interest. 18. Unpaid letters addressed to a country to which pre- payment is compulsory, shall be returned as wrongly sent. 21. International post offices shall account to each other by the piece of letters in open mails, and by the net weight of correspondence in closed mails. 25. The transit charge should never be higher than one- half of the interior rate of the transit country, and for countries of small territorial extent diis transit charge should be even less. 26. The cost of sea conveyance claimed by one country from another shall in no case be higher than the rate charged upon its own correspondence by the country by whose vessels the conveyance shall be effected. "I deem it proper," said Postmaster General Blair, "in concluding my remarks on this subject [the Paris conference], to make known the fact that the public owes the suggestion to invite this international con- 147 148 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY ference to the Hon. John A. Kasson, who represented our government in it." 3 Although the letters relating to the call for an international conference bear Blair's signature, there can be little doubt that Kasson was the moving force in initiating it. He had been a first assistant postmaster general, and as a member of the American equivalent of the "permanent establishment" was intimately familiar with the problems related to foreign mails. Kasson remainded in Europe after the Paris conference closed and negotiated postal conven- tions with Belgium * and the new Kingdom of Italy,5 neither of which were effective. In February 1867 it was learned through the State Department tiiat the government of the French emperor, Napoleon III, was desirous of forming a new postal convention with the United States.6 Kasson was again appointed a special commissioner of the Post Office Department and sent to Paris. Although he was unable to reach agreement with the French, he remained in Europe and nego- tiated new postal conventions with Great Britain.7 the North German Union,8 Belgium,0 the Netherlands,10 Switzerland,11 and Italy.12 The New Postal Conventions Effective in 1868 In all of the new conventions of 1868 Kasson at- tempted to negotiate the principles adopted by the Paris conference. There was also an additional prin- ciple which was introduced for the first time: a recog- nition of the reciprocal nature of letter mail, which Postmaster General Alexander W. Randall expressed succinctly in his annual report for 1867: "the principle that every letter receives an answer, and that the labors of each office are substantially equal." Although each of these conventions had articles which were adapted to the peculiar conditions of the country with which the convention was negotiated, many of the articles were common to all. The common elements of these articles are here discussed as a unit, while those that 3 Ibid, p. 13. 4 16 Statutes at Large 918. 5 Ibid, p. 1005. 8 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1868, p. 18. 7 16 Statutes-at-Large 833. 8 Ibid, 979. "Ibid., 923. 10 Ibid, 1063. "Ibid, 1031. 12 Ibid, 1009. were unique to particular conventions are considered separately. In all of the conventions the United States adopted 15 grams (metric system) as the standard weight for a single-rate letter and a progression of one additional rate for each additional standard weight or fraction thereof. Before this provision could be included in these conventions, however, it was necessary that Con- gress pass a law authorizing the use of the metric sys- tem of weights in the United States, which it did on 28 July 1866.13 Since the local post offices in the United States were not equipped to weigh in grams, all of these 15-gram rates were stated as rates per half ounce when they were published to postmasters and to the public. Because the half ounce weighs only 14.18 grams, a discrepancy in rating occurred between the local offices and the exchange offices which weighed in grams. For example, a letter that weighed 14.30 grams (over one half ounce) would have required a payment of two rates at a local office, but the ex- change office, since the letter weighed less than 15 grams, could have forwarded it for a single rate. Thus, there was a built-in provision for overpayment of post- age on marginal-weight letters, a condition that exists today. Except on letters to France after 1 January 1870 (which will be discussed later), this discrepancy caused no difficulty because all of die conventions pro- vided that the weight stated by the dispatching office be accepted, except in the case of manifest mistake. Of all the countries with whom these conventions were made, only Great Britain refused to adopt a standard weight of 15 grams, steadfastly adhering to a single rate per half ounce. Each country was to make its own arrangements for the dispatch of mail, and at its own cost pay for inter- mediate transportation. But the country that secured the best pecuniary arrangement was to pay for the serv- ice and be compensated by the other country. Sea postage was to belong to the dispatching country. While none of the countries was willing, at that time, to go as far as to allow each country to retain the postage it collected, the reciprocal nature of letter mail was, nevertheless, recognized. All of the conventions provided that the postage on international mail be divided equally between the post offices of the two con- tracting countries, except in the conventions with Switzerland and the Netherlands, in which the division 13 Irving S. Kull, and Nell M, An Encyclopedia of Amer- ican History, p. 231. NUMBER 6 149 was three-fifths to the United States and two-fifths to the other country. Thus, debit and credit markings were no longer necessary on international letters. Such markings, however, continued to be used on transit letters. In all cases prepayment was optional, but unpaid letters were subject to a fine per letter of 50 in the United States and of 2d. in Great Britain; 2 silber- groschen in the North German Union; 30 centesimi in Italy; 25 centimes in Switzerland; 30 centimes in Bel- gium; and 15 cents (Dutch) in the Netherlands. All fines were to be retained by the office collecting them. Insufficiently paid letters were subject to deficient post- age as well as the unpaid-letter fine. The United States-British Postal Conventions On 25 June 1866,14 the British Government served notice to the United States of its intention to terminate the postal convention of 15 December 1848 on 1 Janu- ary 1868, simultaneously with the expiration of the mail subsidy contract with the Cunard line.15 A new convention was completed and signed at London on 18 June 1867, the provisions relating to letter mail to become effective on 1 January 1868.1G Before this convention came into operation, how- ever, the British, on 13 December 1867, served notice of their intention to terminate it on 31 December 1868.17 This notice was accompanied by the announce- ment that the British Post Office would send Mr. An- thony Trollope to Washington in the spring of 1868 with full powers to negotiate a new convention.18 The new convention was signed at London on 7 November and at Washington on 24 November 1868, and became fully effective on 1 January 1869.19 It was agreed to consider a further reduction of the international rate at the expiration of twelve months from the date the convention came into operation. Much of the second convention was a verbatim copy of the first, but the few changes made were significant, the convention of 18 June 1867 stated that the single international rate "shall not exceed 6d. in the United 11 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1866, p. 6. 16 Ibid. 10 16 Statutes at Large 837. 17 Annual Report of the Postmaster General for 1868, p. 17. 18 Ibid. 10 16 Statutes at Large 851. Kingdom, or 12 cents in the United States." This was changed to "shall be" 6d., or 12 cents. The convention made in 1867 held that "the charge for sea conveyance of letters across the Atlantic shall be computed on the basis of 4d, or 8 cents, per single letter rate." The con- vention made in 1868 provided that "the charge for sea conveyance of letters in closed mails across the At- lantic shall be computed at 20 cents per ounce, or per 30 grammes.'' An anomalous situation, however, was created by Article XIV of the convention of 18 June 1867 : The amount of postage chargeable by The United States Post Office, on its own account, upon every single letter sent through the United Kingdom in ordinary mails ad- dressed to The United States, shall be 3 cents, and the amount chargeable by the British Post Office, on its own account, upon every single letter sent through The United States in ordinary mails addressed to the United King- dom shall be Id. It is not clear what postage the above amounts repre- sented. If it was intended to be inland postage, the United States would receive a credit of 30 on incoming letters, but would only retain 2$ on outgoing letters. Regardless of how it was computed, the United States retained 100 as its share of the total postage on letters posted in the United States addressed to foreign coun- tries and sent in transit through England. It is suspected that this amount was arrived at by subtracting the British postage of Id. (20) from the 120 international rate. On letters posted in foreign countries addressed to the United States, via England, the British Post Office credited the United States with 30 per single rate. The above arrangement was changed by Article XV of the convention of 7-24 November 1868 to the following: The British Post Office shall account to The United States' Post Office for the sum of two cents upon every single paid letter sent through the United Kingdom in ordinary mails addressed to The United States, and The United States' Post Office shall account to the British Post Office for the sum of Id. upon every single paid letter sent through The United States in ordinary mails addressed to the United Kingdom. After this convention became effective on 1 January 1869, the British Post Office credited the United States with only 20 per single rate. On outgoing letters, how- ever, the United States continued to retain 100 as its share of the total postage. Only during the year of 1868, therefore, do incoming letters show a British credit to the United States of 30, and these are far from common. 150 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Total rates were arrived at by adding to the 100 United States postage whatever postage was paid by the inhabitants of Great Britain on letters to or from a particular foreign country. Thus, on letters to or from those places to which the 6d. (120) "Colonial" rate prevailed, the total rate in the United States was 220 and in the foreign country, lid (or its equivalent). The foreign postages (between Great Britain and par- ticular destinations) were listed in a table appended to the detailed regulations. The United States-North German Union Postal Convention On 23 August 1866, the Treaty of Prague brought to a close the Seven Weeks' War between Prussia and Austria, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, and several other German states.20 Victorious Prussia directly absorbed the duchies of the Elbe, Hanover, Electoral Hesse, the Grand Duchy of Hesse, Nassau, and Frankfort on- the-Main.21 Early in 1867 a North German Confedera- tion (Union) was formed through treaties made be- tween Prussia and the remaining German states north of the Main. A federal constitution, primarily the work of Bismarck, established a federal council (Bun- desrat), effectively controlled by Prussia, and a lower house (Reichstag), which shared the legislative func- tion equally with the Bundesrat. The presidency was held by the King of Prussia, represented by a chancel- lor (Bismarck), who was responsible only to the King.22 Prussia assumed control of the posts in the absorbed territories which had formed a large part of the Thurn and Taxis system. While this system had provided a unified postal service for Germany, and had avoided the problem of arranging such a service between the various states, the formation of the con- federation made this function of the Thurn and Taxis posts no longer necessary. Additionally, these posts had been considered an infringement upon the sover- eignty of the states they served. Prussia, therefore, ne- gotiated with the Taxis family for a transfer of the whole system to Prussia for a money payment of three million marks.23 The sum was voted by the Prussian 20 William L. Langer, An Encyclopedia of World History, p. 686. 21 A. D. Smith, The Development of Rates of Postage, pp. 354-55. 22 Langer, World History, p. 686. 23 Smith, Rates of Postage, p. 355. legislature without debate, and on 1 July 1867 the Thurn and Taxis administration was amalgamated with the ordinary Prussian posts. The postal adminis- trations of Prussia and the other states of the North German Union were then organized into the North German Postal District, in which uniform rates and services were established. This was achieved by a law passed on 4 November 1867, which became effective on 1 January 1868.24 When John A. Kasson entered into negotiations in 1867 for a postal convention between the United States and the North German Union, he negotiated with the Prussian Post Office which acted for the Union. The completed convention was signed at Ber- lin on 21 October 1867,25 but the regulations were arranged with the new post office of the North Ger- man Union and were not signed until 30 June at Berlin and 22 July 1868 at Washington.26 Because the United States, in maintaining its postal communica- tion with Europe, placed great reliance upon the Ger- man steamship lines, this convention was fully as im- portant to the Post Office Department as were those held with the British. In addition to the provisions held in common with the other conventions, which have already been dis- cussed, there were articles which were unique to this convention, or were related to transit mails which have not previously been considered. These may be summarized as follows: Exchange offices in the United States were established at New York, Boston, Philadelphia, and Chicago; and in the North German Union at Bremen, Hamburg, and the Travelling Post-Office No. 10, between Cologne and Verviers, which was to correspond only with New York, via England and Belgium. Bremen and Hamburg were to correspond with all of the United States offices. The international rates for single letters of 15 grams were: Direct, between Bremen or Hamburg and the United States: On letters from the United States, 10 cents On letters from Germany, 4 silbergroschen Closed mail, via England: On letters from the United States, 15 cents On letters from Germany, 6 silbergroschen All of the conventions, except that with the British, provided the same procedure for setting the rates on open- mail letters. In this convention it is stated in Article XII: Such letters [open-mail letters] were to be charged with the direct international rate, augmented by the postage u Ibid. 25 16 Statutes at Large 979-982. 26 Ibid. 984-985. NUMBER 6 151 due to foreign countries, and by any other tax for ex- terior service. Thus the international rate was basic to all open- mail rates, the postage between the North German Union and the particular foreign country merely being added to it. The international postage was retained by the dispatching office, and finally accounted for by dividing the total collected in both countries equally between the two post offices. On letters posted in the United States, the North German Union was given credit for the foreign postage. Appended to the regula- tions was a table which set forth the amount of the foreign postage (in silbergroschen) to be paid by the United States to the North German Union on letters addressed to a number of destinations. The regulations also provided that credits were to be made, on prepaid letters, in the currency of the dispatching country, and in doing so the cent (U.S.) was to be considered as equivalent to five pfennige (German). The total rates on letters sent in closed mails, via England, were also arrived at by adding to the 150 in- ternational rate the postage beyond the North German Union. In the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant tables of postages to foreign countries, these rates are shown for the particular countries as "via North Ger- man Union, direct," and "via North German Union, closed mail, via England." In each case the latter rate was 50 higher than the former. The regulations provided that letters be marked to show the office of origin. Correspondence fully paid to destination was to be marked PAID ALL in the United States, and FRANCO in the North German Union. All of the conventions, except that with the British, pro- vided for the marking of prepaid letters with PAID ALL. Correspondence insufficiently paid was to be marked INSUFFICIENTLY PAID in the United States, and UN- ZUREICHEND FRANKIRT in the North German Union. The amount of deficient postage was to be expressed in black figures on the face in the currency of the receiving office. The treatment prescribed by the regu- lations for insufficiently paid transit letters differed from that to be used on international letters. Insuffi- ciently paid transit letters were to be sent as wholly unpaid, partial payments not being recognized. But if one or more full rates were prepaid, the number of rates fully prepaid was to be recognized. The exchange offices were to mark in red ink in the upper part of the address of prepaid letters sent in transit in the open mail the amount of postage due to the foreign office of destination, and in black ink 372-645 0—70^—11 on unpaid transit letters the amount of postage due to the office of origin. Although this procedure was pre- scribed only for open-mail letters, covers indicate tiiat it was also used on letters sent in closed mails, via England. While it was not prescribed by the regulations, the exchange offices customarily placed their mark upon letters when they were received. Until 1 July 1870, let- ters sent from the United States in closed mail, via England, bear the marking of the travelling post office, Verviers to Cologne. This marking was inscribed (in four straight lines) VERVIERS, B./[date]m/coELN/ FRANCO and was applied in red to prepaid letters. A similar marking without FRANCO was applied in blue to unpaid or insufficiently paid letters. The Hamburg office used rectangular boxed markings of at least two types inscribed HAMBURG/[date]/FRANCO applied in red. The Bremen office also used a boxed marking inscribed BREMEN/[date]/FRANCO which was applied in purple until early 1869, and thereafter in red. The United States offices applied to incoming North Ger- man Union mail a variety of circular markings in- scribed with the name of the office, the date, and PAID ALL OR PAID. To prepaid letters dispatched by the New York office to the travelling office, Verviers to Cologne, a circular marking inscribed NEW YORK PAID ALL/[date]/BR. TRANSIT was applied in red. Letters sent to the offices of Bremen or Hamburg bear circular markings show- ing the United States exchange office, the date, and PAID ALL. Those from the New York and Boston offices are also inscribed DIRECT. Although the United States offices marked prepaid transit letters with the amount of credit to the North German Union for the foreign postage in United States cents, the German offices also marked the letters with the same amount in silbergroschen. These German markings are usually preceded by the letter /, abbre- viating franco (meaning "paid") or by Wfr, abbre- viating weiterfranco (literally meaning "paid beyond"). Rates and Special Provisions of the Other Conventions Effective in 1868 The conventions with Belgium, the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Italy provided that the single rate of postage on direct correspondence exchanged be- tween the two administrations be 150 in the United 152 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY States on prepaid letters. The corresponding rates in the other countries were: Belgium, 80 centimes; the Netherlands, 40 cents (Dutch) ; Switzerland, 80 centimes; and Italy, 80 centesimi. In relation to these rates, the conventions speak of direct correspondence. Formerly, the term "direct" referred to mail conveyed by direct steamer between New York and a European port without passing through England. The term "direct" as here used takes on a new meaning. The tables of postages to foreign countries included in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant for January 1868 show the rates to Belgium and the Netherlands as follows: Belgium *15 Netherlands *15 * Indicates optional prepayment, and rates are for letters not exceeding one-half ounce in weight. While the Belgian and Netherlands conventions be- came effective on 1 January 1868, the conventions with Switzerland and Italy did not come into operation until 1 April 1868. The table of postages of the June issue 27 lists, among others, the convention rates, as follows: Italy (direct closed mail via England) *15 I Switzerland (direct closed mail via England)- *15 / (*Optional prepayment.) (/ indicates a fine on unpaid or insufficiently paid letters.) According to the previous terminology, "direct closed mail via England" is a contradiction. It now meant that the bags were closed in the United States and were conveyed in closed condition through Eng- land and the other intermediate countries until they reached their destination in Switzerland or Italy. In regard to mail for Belgium and the Netherlands, that, too, was sent in closed bags directly to the correspond- ing exchange office in Belgium or the Netherlands. Articles Relating Only to United States-Belgian Mail Exchange offices in the United States were estab- lished at New York and Boston; and in Belgium at Antwerp, Ostend (travelling office), and Ostend (local "On the tables for April and May the mail services are listed, but the figures for the rates, obviously through error, are omitted. office). A table appended to the detailed regulations, however, provided that New York and Boston corre- spond only with the offices at Antwerp and Ostend (travelling office). The exchange of mails was to be effected by means of the steamship lines plying between Liverpool and New York, Bremen and New York by Southampton, Hamburg and New York by Southamp- ton, and by Canadian packets. While the convention allowed either country to select its route for the dis- patch of mail, these regulations limited the choice to specific lines, all of which conveyed mail via England. While Article V set the single rate on prepaid letters from the United States at 150 and on prepaid letters from Belgium at 80 centimes, Article VI provided: Whenever there shall be established a direct line of steam communication between the ports of the United States and Belgium ... it is agreed that the international single letter rate applicable to this route shall be reduced to 10 cents in the United States and 50 centimes in Belgium. After the Ruger Brothers abandoned the run to Antwerp in 1866, only City of Cork and Kangaroo of the Inman line were plying between Antwerp and New York. The steamship lines listed in the annual reports of the postmaster general do not show service to Antwerp by the Inman line, nor do the tables of postages to foreign countries of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant show a 100 direct rate to Bel- gium. It is not known, however, whether Belgium dispatched mail to the United States by this line. Exchange Offices Established by the Other Conventions Under the convention with the Netherlands, ex- change offices were established at New York and Bos- ton in the United States, and at Moerdyke (travelling office) in the Netherlands. The convention with Switzerland established an ex- change office at New York in the United States, and at Basle and at "Geneva (when the Swiss Confedera- tion shall find it expedient)." The United States-Italian convention of 8 Novem- ber 1867 established an exchange office in the United States at New York and in Italy at (1) Susa—travel- ling office, (2) Camerlata—travelling office, and (3) Arona—travelling office. The United States-Italian convention of 8 July 1863, which did not become ef- fective, had established these same offices for Italy, but NUMBER 6 153 had been more explicit regarding the mails which were routed through them: 28 First, the travelling office from Turin to Susa, when transit is by way of France and England Second, the travelling office from Milan to Camerlata, or the travelling office from Arona to Magadino, when transit is by way of Germany and Switzerland. Later Modifications in the Conventions Great Britain As had been agreed, the United States and British post offices considered a further reduction of the inter- national rate during 1869. Additional articles to the convention of 7-24 November 1868 were signed at Washington on 3 December and at London on 14 De- cember 1869.29 These articles reduced the international rate to 3d. per half ounce in the United Kingdom, and to 60 per 15 grams in the United States. The fine for insufficiently paid and unpaid letters was set at 3d. in Great Britain and at 60 in the United States. Sea postage was to be computed at 60 per ounce or per 30 grams. Although sea postage was computed on the weight of mail, Postmaster General Creswell in his annual report for 1870 stated that the rate was divided, "2 cents being designated as sea postage, and 2 cents the inland postage of each country." Although these articles mention only the international rate, the postage on transit letters was also affected. The United States now retained 20 inland post- age as well as 20 sea postage on each single letter it dispatched in British mails. Thus, its share of the total postage on a transit letter sent under this convention was reduced from 100 to A «5 ♦ Q ^ft*S$S 1* /l£My^(y W'M I '• -j y' I % ^N. y/ . / /y <^ fc V. / \ ui. »' ft») \ FIGURE 108.—COVER, from Richmond, Mass. to Point-Aven, Finistere, France, 1873. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 1867, appended a table to the detailed regulations. The table showed the rates of postage to be accounted for by the United States to die British Post Office on let- ters conveyed in transit through England in ordinary mails between die United States and twenty-six listed countries.11 The amount set beside the name of each country represented the existing rate between that country and Great Britain. In each case, the prepaid rate shown for the designated country in the tables of postages to foreign countries published in the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant was 100 higher than the rate reflected in the table appended to the detailed regulations. The twenty-six countries included in this table were largely British colonies traditionally served by British mail. While Anthony Trollope represented Great Britain in die negotiation of the United States-British conven- tion of 7-24 November 1868, the detailed regulations, signed at the same time, were negotiated by Joseph H. Blackfan for the United States and John Tilley for Great Britain.12 Blackfan was superintendent of For- eign Mails, and Tilley was secretary of the General Post Office at London. Both of these gentlemen were 1116 Statutes-at-Large 842. 13 Ibid. 860-862. intimately acquainted with the details of the foreign- mail services. Appended to these detailed regulations was a table similar to that appended to the detailed regulations for the 18 June 1867 convention. The list, however, was expanded to 155 countries and destina- tions, and included, as far as possible, the countries that were then being served by French mail. Since these detailed regulations were signed at Washington on 24 November 1868, about ten months after the United States had served notice to France of its in- tention to terminate the United States-French con- vention, there can be little doubt that the United States was preparing an alternate service to replace French mail. The list included an entry for France and a separate entry for Algeria. It should be emphasized that Algeria was considered by die French a part of metropolitan France and all postal conventions after that of 3 April 1843 had joined France and Algeria as one contracting party, setting the same rate for each. Besides the names of both France and Algeria were entered the notation (a) 8. The 8 indicated that the United States was to credit Great Britain with 80, while the (a) denoted "Increase by an additional rate for every 7^4 grams, or fraction thereof." This was die existing international 170 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY rate between Great Britain and France and Algeria of 4d. per one-fourth ounce in Great Britain, or 40 centimes per 7/2 grams in France and Algeria. It had been established for prepaid letters through additional articles to the Anglo-French treaty of 3 April 1843, and became effective on 1 January 1855.13 Unpaid letters were at double this rate. The rate was unchanged by Article XIII of the Anglo-French convention of 24 September 1856, which superseded these articles.11 The United States-French convention expired on 31 December 1869, and on the following day, 1 January 1870, the additional United States-British convention of 3-14 December 1869, which reduced the United States share of the international rate from 100 to 4 COC^p^p6^^ /fl /f v^. £S**f /• /jr^ FIGURE 113.—COVER, from Boston [?] to Paris, France, 1874. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 176 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 114.—COVER, through New York to Paris, 1874. (Melvin W. Schuh collection) Marginal-Weight Letters Covers showing overpayments of postage in rela- tion to the credits shown upon them are frequently seen. Some of these letters when weighed in ounces at the local offices required a prepayment of postage in excess of what was required when they were weighed in grams at the exchange offices. For example, a few covers have been seen that are prepaid with 160, but show an exchange office credit of only 60. Undoubted- ly, these letters weighed over 9.45 grams (one-third of an ounce) at the local offices and required a 160 pre- payment. At the exchange offices, however, these let- ters did not weigh over ten grams and required a credit of only 60. While some overpayments may be ex- plained as marginal-weight letters, there are others which are prepaid with inexplicable amounts, and some of these may be fraudulent. The Exchange Offices The 40 open-mail rate was available at all of the exchange offices that made up British mails. Very few covers, however, bear an exchange office marking other than New York. One cover showing a Boston marking and one cover bearing a red PHIL'A/[DATE]/PA. have been seen. These two covers are the only ones showing exchange office markings other than New York re- corded by die audior. Certainly, covers showing mark- ings of the Baltimore, Portland, Chicago, Detroit, or San Francisco offices should exist. After 1 November 1871, the CC rates were also available at all of the exchange offices. Strange as it may seem, however, all covers seen by the author show- ing these rates bear New York or Boston markings. Only the markings of the New York and Philadelphia offices have been seen on covers by the direct route. Rates from France to the United States By imperial decree of 22 December 1869 and 31 January 1870,25 a rate of 70 centimes per 10 grams was set for letters posted in France addressed to the United States and sent via England.26 Prepayment of this rate was compulsory, and it became effective on 1 January 1870. Great Britain forwarded these letters to the United States under terms of the United States- 23 Salles, La Poste Maritime, vol. 4, p. 282. 26 It is doubted that this rate could have been for a letter of 10 grams until after the effective date (1 July 1870) of the Anglo-French convention of 21 Sept. 1869. NUMBER 6 177 British convention of 7-24 November 1868, and credited the United States with 20 per half ounce. About the middle of 1871 this rate was increased to 1 franc 20 centimes (12 decimes) for a letter of 10 grams. According to Smith,27 M. Caillaux intro- duced in the National Assembly on 23 August 1871 a bill to increase French domestic postal rates, "solely as a fiscal measure." Since there is nothing to indicate that there was a change, at this time, in the amount of postage paid by France to Great Britain on letters dis- patched from France through England, it is presumed that the increase in rate from 70 to 120 centimes was also a fiscal measure.28 The U.S. Postal Guide for 1873 (rates as of 1 July) states: The postage on letters from France to the United States sent, via England, is 24 cents (1 franc, 20 centimes) per J/3 ounce and letters so prepaid should be delivered in the United States free of charge, but letters sent by direct steamer are subject to postage of 10 cents per half ounce on delivery; no matter what amount of postage has been prepaid in France. Letters insufficiently prepaid for transmission, via England, are treated by the French Post Office as wholly unpaid and reach the United States with a claim for French and British postage, which must be collected on delivery. Since there was no accounting between the post offices of the United States and France, all unpaid letters had to be sent via England. Letters insufficiently prepaid were sent as unpaid via England regardless of the route indicated by the mailer. Unpaid and insuffi- ciently paid letters posted in France addressed to the United States bear "currency" markings which indicate they were forwarded by France to England charged at the rate of 2 francs per 30 grams, bulk weight of such letters. Great Britain evidently divided the bulk rate by 4 to arrive at a single rate of 50 centimes (100) per one-fourth ounce. To this rate was added the British postage of 40 per half ounce (20 British inland and 20 sea postage). Thus, on a single-rate letter, the British debited the United States with 140, while on a double-rate letter only the postage charged by France was double, and the British debit was 240. On these letters the United States postage was 20 per half ounce, and the total postage for a single rate was 160 and for a double rate, 260. Since collections in the United States were made in depreciated currency, the exchange office markings do not show the true rate. Support for this statement will be presented in Chapter 10 27 A. D. Smith, Development of Rates of Postage, p. 28 Salles makes no mention of the 120-centime rate. which deals with depreciated currency covers. By an imperial decree of 22 December 1869, effec- tive 1 January 1870, letters to be sent by direct steamer from France to the United States required a prepay- ment in France of 60 centimes per 10 grams. This paid the letter to the port of departure, and such letters were marked P.P.29 A law of 21 April 1871, effective on 1 July 1871, and placed in force by a notification issued at Verseilles on 25 May 1871, reduced the di- rect rate from 60 to 50 centimes.30 On these direct let- ters, 100 per half ounce was collected on delivery in the United States. Figure 115 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 24 February 1870, addressed to New York, and endorsed VOIE ANGLAISE ("By English line"). It is prepaid 70 centimes, the fully prepaid rate, via England. The Paris office marked it PD ("paid to destination"). The London office marked it PAID on 25 February and credited the United States with 20. From the London office it was sent to Liverpool to be conveyed to New York by the R.M.S. Samaria of the Cunard line, which sailed from there on 26 February 1870. Unfortunately, the Samaria became disabled on 3 March and returned to Queenstown where it arrived on 1 April 1870.31 Undoubtedly its mails were forwarded by the next steamer which was R.M.S. Cuba, which sailed from Liverpool on 2 April and arrived in New York on 13 April 1870. Usually these covers bear a NEW YORK/ PAID ALL marking showing the date of arrival. On this cover there is no New York marking, and one wonders if it was omitted intentionally. Figure 116 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 9 February 1872, addressed to New York. It is prepaid 120 centimes to be sent fully prepaid to destination, via England. All British and French markings are similar to those appearing on Figure 115, except that New York marked it PAID ALL. Figure 117 illustrates a cover posted in Paris on 19 September 1873, addressed to New York. It is pre- paid 50 centimes to be sent by the direct route. The Paris office marked it in red P.P. (marking on left stamp). The New York office applied a circular N.Y. STEAMSHIP/ 10 marking in black, indicating that 100 were to be collected in United States notes on delivery. 29 Salles, La Poste Maritime, vol. 4, p. 228. 30 Ibid., p. 229. 31 Taken from records of the Cunard line by Lester L. Downing. 178 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY *£/*>■?*? COHERCECE'CHEVE ^vt>L^L/^^ FIGURE 116.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1872. (Photograph by Smithsonian) NUMBER 6 179 Kit 1 <*// '7 fYf/ C ^^w V §r^"*^ LEON PELLEUAY / J «/i FIGURE 117.—COVER, from Paris to New York, 1873. (Photograph by Smithsonian) The United States^French Convention of 28 April 1874 On 28 April 1874, the United States and France, after years of negotiation, signed a new postal conven- tion at Washington.32 The detailed regulations were signed at Washington on 9 June and at Paris on 24 June 1874,33 and it was agreed that die convention come into operation on 1 August 1874. Exchange offices were established in France at Paris, Le Havre, Cherbourg, Brest, die travelling office, Paris to Calais, and the travelling office, Lille to Calais. In the United States, offices were established at Boston and New York. By Article 2 of the detailed regulations the exchange of mails was to be effected as follows: By way of French mail-packets—The offices of Paris, Le Havre, and Brest shall correspond with the office of New York. By way of packets of the Hamburg line—The offices of 32 18 Statutes at Large 810. 33 Ibid. 816. Paris and Le Havre shall make up mails for the office of New York, and the office of New York shall make up mails for the offices of Paris, Le Havre, and Cherbourg. By way of England—The offices of Paris and Le Havre and the travelling offices of Paris to Calais and Lille to Calais shall correspond with the offices of Boston and New York. Thus, all mail passing through the Boston office was sent or received by way of England. A table appended to the detailed regulations states the origin and desti- nation of the mails sent from or received at the offices of Boston or New York by the various routes.34 This table discloses that the Boston office was to forward or receive letters posted in or addressed to the states of Massachusetts, Maine, Vermont, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island, only. No mail was to be dispatched by packets from Boston, but mail would be received by packets arriving at Boston. The New York office was to forward or receive letters posted in or addressed to any part of the United States. Letters, by any route, were exchanged in closed mails between the exchange office of origin and the exchange office of destination. 34 Ibid. 420. 180 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY Article III of the convention set the rates of postage. On letters posted in France or Algeria, addressed to the United States, the rate was set at 50 centimes per 10 grams or fraction of 10 grams. On letters posted in the United States, addressed to France or Algeria, the rate was 90 per 15 grams or fraction of 15 grams. Un- paid letters were to bear a fine of 25 centimes per letter in France, or of 50 per letter in the United States. In- sufficiently paid letters were to be treated as unpaid, but the amount of postage prepaid by postage stamps was to be deducted. Since each country was to retain the postage it col- lected, there was no accounting for international letters between the two post offices, and debit and credit markings were unnecessary. There is, therefore, no evidence of weight discrepancy between the local offices which rated letters per half ounce and the exchange offices which rated them per 15 grams. It was provided, however, that the United States exchange offices mark prepaid letters dispatched to France and Algeria PAID in red ink, while the French offices were to mark letters prepaid to United States destinations PD in red ink. Insufficiently prepaid letters were to be so marked by the dispatching offices. There were elaborate provisions for the exchange of open mails which were to pass in transit through France or the United States to or from foreign coun- tries. Similar provisions were made for closed mails. The conditions upon which these mails would be ex- changed were set forth in tables appended to the detailed regulations.35 The official Postal Guide for Oc- tober 1874, makes no mention, either in its text or in its "Foreign Postage Table," of rates "by French Mail," or "via France," as shown in the detailed regulations. This is also true of the tables of postages to foreign countries published in various issues of the U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant. It appears, therefore, that the postmaster general preferred not to make use of these transit provisions on mail dispatched from the United States. Of the delegates from the twenty-one countries as- sembled at the Berne Postal Congress in 1874, only the delegate from France did not have the necessary powers to sign a treaty.36 The Berne Postal Treaty was signed on 9 October 1874, and through a final proto- col France was allowed to sign at a later date. On 3 May 1875, France's delegate, B. d'Harcourt, signed the treaty37 on condition that France be allowed to place it in force on 1 January 1876, instead of 1 July 1875; that the rate would not be changed before the next congress; and that France be permitted to charge transit rates on the basis of the actual distance the mails were carried.38 Thus, the rates of the convention of 28 April 1874 were superseded on 1 January 1876 by the General Postal Union rates of 50 in the United States, or 40 centimes in France, per 15 grams. Since the conven- tion of 28 April 1874 was in force for only seventeen months, covers showing its rates are scarce, and those showing the 90 rate from the United States are popu- lar with collectors. Figure 118 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Ain, France. The NEW YORK/PAID mark- ing was introduced when the convention became ef- fective. The date in this marking is 2 December 1874, a Wednesday, and according to the "Sailing of Mail Steamers" published in the October 1874 issue of the official Postal Guide, Wednesday sailings from New York were by steamers of the Cunard line. The double- circle ETATS-UNis/[date]/v. ANGL. AMB. CAL. B mark- ing which was applied in black by the travelling office, Calais to Paris, was introduced with the convention. This office also applied a P.D. marking in red. Figure 119 illustrates a cover posted in New York, addressed to Ain, France, and forwarded to Paris. This letter weighed over half an ounce and was prepaid 180 by a pair of 30 and a pair of 60 stamps (Continentals). The New York office applied a foreign-mail killer (Milliken no. 16, Herst-Sampson no. 844) in black, and a NEW YORK/PAID marking bearing the date of 18 May (1875), a Tuesday. According to the "Sailing of Mail Steamers" included in the April 1875 issue of the official Postal Guide, Tuesday sailings, via England, were by steamers of the Guion line. The French mark- ings are similar to those appearing on Figure 118, except that the P.D. marking was applied in black. Figure 120 illustrates a cover posted in the New York "supplementary mail" on 21 October (1875). At dockside a mailbag was kept open after the regular mail had closed. Letters posted late to be sent in this supplementary mailbag required a prepayment of double postage for a single-rate letter. This letter is prepaid 180 (2 x 90) by a pair and a single of the 60 stamp (Continental). The New York office applied a foreign-mail killer (Milliken no. 50) in black, and a 35 Ibid. 821-822. 36 Arthur George Codding, Jr., The Universal Postal Union, pp. 27, 34. 19 Statutes at Large 587. 1 Codding, Universal Postal Union, p. 34. NUMBER 6 181 \ ^UVXAJ r* tfPzs*— (S^^ FIGURE 118.—COVER, from New York to Ain, France, 1874. (Photograph by Smithsonian) n &-/> / FIGURE 119.—COVER, from New York to Ain, France, forwarded to Paris, 1875. (Photograph by Smithsonian) 182 SMITHSONIAN STUDIES IN HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY FIGURE 120.—COVER, from New York to Richmond (Ain), France, 1875. (Photograph by Smithsonian) AUX HUiT BOULES D'OR MAGASIN DE CHEVE^UX COMMISSION-EXPORTATION VVE F. ANTOINE & C" 4. 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HH HH IS fS SH1 HH J2 s? s2 m CO fi SS.S. fs is o fs- fs ts p- jp o o o o ts is o P o o -^ CM ^ CM I ts^ fs fs^ ts o o" © o" NWtNio O © O © tS fS fS fS fS ts rs fs * * * # ■* m ■* CM m o 10 o o co -H CM P CM -H HH eZJC 2C02©C0C0 co co co co con co to to to 3 _« CQ OJ P o v. E. v. Brindi v. Brindi Open M v. Austri Direct CM. v. Direct CM. v. Direct P , direct CM. v. 2'2'g Jsj O HP PH . ' . " SH ^ P 0 co PH PQ Z CJ G SH u o -HJ J OH G CJ o G en "G , key: to a .2 to places sted ks Is. j any guay Diema: ezuela oria lachia 1 Tur P PP Tur Tusi Uru 3 c 03 tD > > Vict Walh H p CO CO CO >' > >' ,_• IH SH IH JJ hi P pq pq pq sS fn nS JP rg jp -c K en hH en e HSJ •& +_ -a $ d c PQ Z PQ Index Aachen, 9, 87, 141. See also Exchange offices Accounting, international, 3 Acknowledgment of receipt, 28 Adelaide, British Post Office at, 142 Aden, British Post Office at, 142 Admiralty, British, 1 Agency, U.S. Postal, atBremen, 12, 13, 14, 119 Agents, forwarding, 2, 9, 11 Agents, mail, 78, 165 Ain, France, 180 Aix-la-Chapelle. See Aachen Algeria, 169, 170 Allentown, Pa., 123 Anglo-Belgian mail. See Mail services Anglo-Bremen mail. See Mail services Anglo-Prussian mail. See Mail services Alexandria, Egypt, Austrian Post Office at, 142 American Almanac, 35 American packets, 4, 5, 25, 29, 38, 39, 43, 44, 45, 47, 48, 50, 63, 65, 85, 93, 100, 102, 103, 110, 111, 115, 116, 120, 123, 125, 128, 130, 134, 135, 146, 153, 188, 189, 190 Amsterdam, Netherlands, 105 Antwerp, Belgium, 4, 102, 104, 105, 106, 157. See also Exchange offices Articles in the accounts, 40, 41 Article LII of Anglo-French (1843) convention, 37, 40, 41, 44, 45 Article XII of U.S.-British (1848) treaty, 27, 38, 41, 42, 43, 44 Article XVII, articles of execution, U.S.-British (1848) treaty, 36 Ashbrook, Stanley B., 92, 101, 173 Ashbrook's Special Service, 92, 101, 102, 104 Atlantic's Return—Schottische, 125 Auckland, British Post Office at, 142 Auditor of the Treasury for the Post Office Department, reports of, 20, 131, 134, 135 Au dos, 78 Augusta, Ga., 131 Australia, 141 Austria, 4, 140, 155; Post Office of, 142; Post Office in Turkey, 162 Baden, 21, 110, 141, 142 Bahia, Brazil, 108 Baltimore, Md., 4, 9, 11, 20, 52, 78, 90, 116. See also Exchange offices Baker, J. David, 93 Bancroft, George: Canadian mails, 37; decision for treaty, 26; exclusion of France, 41; memo to Maberly, 42, 43, 47, negotiations with British, 23, 24, 25; optional prepayment, 37, 38; packet rate, 37; progression, 34; treaty of reci- procity, 42; uniform rates, 26 Bartsch, Dr., Director of Bremen Posts, 20, 116, 130 Basle, Switzerland, 95. See also Exchange offices Bates, Barnabus, 2 Bath, Me., 138 Bavaria, 140 Belgian closed mail. See Mail services Berlin, Prussia, 17, 94, 113, 159 Berne Postal Congress, 180 Bishop Hill, 111., 160 Blackfan, Joseph H., 164, 169 Blair, Montgomery, 138, 147, 185, 186, 189 Blake, Maurice C, 36 Bombay, India, British Post Office at, 142 Bordeaux, France, 50, 58, 66, 67, 69, 79, 108, 165 Boston, Mass., 36, 46, 79, 82, 126, 127, 137, 187, 188; steam- ship arrivals in, 5, 6, 9, 11, 18, 30, 31, 68, 127, 189; steam- ship sailings from 5, 16, 30, 31, 46, 48, 55, 67, 68, 90, 106, 135, 138, 143. See also Exchange offices Bremen, Free Hansiatic City of, 4, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 20, 121, 125, 140, 142, 153, 154, 155, 187, 193. See also Exchange offices Bremen closed mail. See Mail services Bremen-Hamburg mail. See Mail services Bremen mail. See Mail services Bremen packets, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120, 121, 123 Bremerhaven, 6, 12, 13, 14, 18, 19, 85, 119, 130 Brest, France, 4, 78, 165. See also Exchange office Brigade, 66, 78 Brisbane, British Post Office at, 142 Bristol, England, 4 British Columbia, 76 British East India Company, 112 British mail. See Mail services British open mail. See Mail services British packets, 1, 5, 38, 39, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 50, 63, 85, 93, 100, 102, 103, 127, 138, 139, 189, 192 British Post Office, 38, 87, 99, 100, 127,144 Brown, Aaron V., 116, 119; contract with Vanderbilt, 115; single trip contracts, 118; "Miscellaneous" line, 118 Brunswick, 13, 140, 143 Buchanan, James, 26, 41, 43 Burritt, Elihu, 2 227 228 INDEX Caillaux, M., 117 Caird&Co., 119 Calcutta, British Post Office at, 142 California, 26, 28, 76, 137 Campbell, James, 89, 105, 111; arrangement with Hamburg, 119; Collins line subsidy, 113; credit for sea postage, 39; French scale, 70; New York port, 114; "retaliatory" order, 46; sailing irregularities, 19; sea postage, 47; transit rates, 42 Canada, provisional government of, 134 Canadian mail packets, 134, 135, 137, 152. See also Steam- ship lines. Canadian mails, 23, 24, 37, 42, 43 Canadian Post Office Department, 134 Cape Elizabeth Depot, Me., 171 Carpenter, Samuel, 46 Charleston, S.C., 31, 100, 101 Charlottesville, Va., 50 Cherbourg, France, 54, 153, 165. See also Exchange offices Chicago, 111., 134, 135. See also Exchange offices Christiania, Norway, 160, 162 Civil War, 77, 119, 125, 136, 184, 190 Clanricarde, Lord, 27, 37, 38; decision for treaty, 26; desired postal convention, 24; offer to France, 43, 44; proposals, 25; protection of Cunard line, 23 Clarendon, Lord, 39, 62 Clermont, N.Y., 123 Closed mail: defined, 8 Coal, British: for steam packets, 1, 17; consumption of, 17 Coinage: Mint and market ratios, 184; silver subsidiary, 185, 186 Coles, William C, Jr., 192, 193 Collamer, Jacob, 19, 35, 185 Collins, E. K.. packets as cruisers, 4; lobbied for subsidy, 113, 114, 115 Cologne, Prussia, 9, 141. See also Exchange offices Colonial rate, 24, 150 Columbia: Me., 90;S.C, 113 Commission of Bremen agent, 14, 119 Commissions of postmasters, 39 Compulsory prepayment, 11, 38, 76, 82, 88, 127, 140, 143, 155, 156, 176 Congress, U.S., 1, 2, 12, 14, 24, 34, 46, 113-115 passim, 183-185 passim Congress of Vienna, 13 Constantinople, 141, 159, 162 Consuls, U.S.: as forwarding agents, 2 Convention, commercial: U.S.-Great Britain (1815), 24, 25 Conventions, postal, 2, 24; Anglo-Belgian (1844), 99; (1849), 102; (1857), 103; Anglo-Bremen (1841), 6, 7, 8, 19; Anglo-French (1843), 40, 41, 43, 62, 170; (1856), 44, 63, 64, 65, 70, 165, 170; (1869), 169, 171; Anglo-Prussian (1846), 8, 9, 85; (1852), 86, 93, 95, 140; (1859), 140; (1862), 141, 142; common provisions of, 148, 149; Berne, treaty of, 162, 180; Bremen-Hanover, 12; German-Austrian (1850), 15, 85, 86; Kainardji, treaty of, 162; U.S.- Belgium (1859), 105, 106; (1863), 148; (1867), 148, 151, 152; (1870), 156; (1873), 156; U.S. Bremen (1847), 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 112; (1853), 110, 111, 112, 120, 144; U.S.- Denmark (1871), 157, 158; U.S.-France (1857), 56, 66, 70-78, 93, 94, 136, 138, 164, 167, 169, 170, 189; (1874), 179 180; U.S.-Great Britain (1848), 9, 19, 24-28, 36, 38, 99, 100,133-136, 140, 142; (1867),149, 169; (1868),149 169, 177; (1869), 153, 167, 170; U.S.-Hamburg (1857), 119^ 144; U.S.-Italy (1863), 148, 152, 153; (1867), 148, 151; (1870), 156; U.S.-Netherlands (1867), 148, 151, 152; (1870), 157; (1874), 157; U.S.-North German Union (1867), 148, 150, 151, 193; (1870), 153, 154; (1871), 155; U.S.-Prussia (1852), 20, 82, 85, 86, 93, 106, 138; U.S.-Sweden and Norway (1873), 158; U.S.-Switzerland (1867), 149, 151; (1870), 156; Wickliffe Agreement, 24 Corn laws, 1 Cornwall-on-the-Hudson, N.Y., 162 Corridor countries, 100 Covers (by Mail services): Anglo-Bremen mail, 9; Anglo- Prussian closed mail, 9-11; Belgian closed mail, 106-108; Bremen mail, direct, 17, 21, 22, 112, 113; Bremen closed mail, 20, 21; Bremen-Hamburg mail: Bremen service, 121, 123; Hamburg service, 121, 123; U.S. service, 121, 123, 125. British closed mail from France: American packet, 52; British packet, 50, 52; three months' period, 69. British open mail: to Bavaria, 96; to Belgium, 100, 101, 102, 104; from Belgium, 104; to France, 46, 48, 50, 52, 66, 67, 165, 167; to Germany, 94, 95; to Switzerland, 95, 96, 97, 98. New York-Havre line, direct, 58, 59, 60, 62; Direct service to France (1870-74), 165, 167, 177. British mail—international: partial payment recognized, 36; Philadelphia exchange office, 133, 134; Portland exchange office, 138; triple rate, 144, 145. British mail, via South- ampton, 127. Depreciated currency: Bremen-Hamburg mail, 188; British mail—international, 187, 188, 190, 192; British open mail, 188; Boston exchange office, 189; Chi- cago exchange office, 192; Detroit exchange office, 193; Philadelphia exchange office, 193; Portland exchange of- fice, 193; Prussian closed mail, 190; Unpaid letter from France, 193. French mail—international: American packet, direct, 79; American packet, via England, 78; British packet, 78; Baltimore exchange office, 136; Chicago ex- change office, 139, Direct service, rerated, 132; (1874), 180, 183. French mail-transit: to Belgium, 108; to Norway, 82, 84; to Rome, 79, 82; to Sicily, 82; to Switzerland, 79, 138, North German Union mail—international, 159. North German Union mail—transit: to Constantinople, 159, 160, 162, 163; to Norway, 160, 162; to Sweden, 160. Ocean line service to France, via Southampton, 57, 58. Prepaid to France, via England (1870-74) : "phantom rate," 171; "CC" rates, 174. Prepaid from France, via England, 177. Prussian closed mail: international, 90, 92, 93, 143; Bremen service intended, 116, 129, 130, 131. Prussian closed mail—transit: to Finland, 139; to Norway, 93; to Switzerland, 131, 143, 144. United States-Great Britain: "restored" rates, 31, 33; "retaliatory" rates, 29, 31; 1845 rates, 5, 6. U.S. to France (1846), 48. Cowes, England, 55 Creswell, John A. J., 73, 153, 154, 155, 158; "phantom rate" to France, 170, 171; prepaid rate to France, 173 Crimean War, 112, 128 Cuxhaven, 6, 19,42,85 NUMBER 6 229 Daniels, Bruce G., 46 Davis, Congressman from Mississippi, 114 Davis, John C. B., 43, 44, 56 Decrees of France, 45, 5 7, 96, 165, 176, 177 Denmark, 4. See also Conventions, postal Deep River, Conn., 102 Delivery fee, 21,88,92 Depreciated currency: exchange office procedure, 186; unpaid letters, collections on, 185, 186. See also Greenbacks De Sartiges, Count, 47 De Wasserman, Dr. Robert, 66, 103, 106 Direct closed mail, via England, 152. See also Mail services Direct mail: defined, 8, 9 Double sea postage, 23, 25, 29, 31, 39, 45, 50 Dover, England, 9. See also Exchange offices Downing, Lester L., 58 Dresden, Saxony, 20 Duckwitz, Arnold, 4, 12, 13, 109, 110, 116 Diisseldorf, Prussia, 9 Early, General Jubal, 190 Edinburgh, Scoltand, 5 Emigrant trade, 125, 126 Endicott, William and Company, 128 Eufaula, Ala., 171 Everett, Edward, 42 Exchange office accounting, 28; Belgian closed mail, 107; French mail-international rate, 74; French mail to coun- tries beyond France, 75; Prussian closed mail, 87; U.S.- Bremen (1853), 111; U.S.-British (1848)—international rate, 28 Exchange offices: Under the Conventions: Anglo-Belgian (1844), 99; (1857), 103; Anglo-Bremen (1841), 6; Anglo- Prussian (1846), 9; (1862), 141; U.S.-Belgium (1859), 105; (1867), 152; U.S.-Bremen (1847), 13, 14 (1853), 110; U.S.-Denmark (1871), 157; U.S.-France (1857), 71,73, 136, 137; (1874), 179; U.S.-Great Britain (1848), 29, 133-136; U.S.-Italy (1863), 153; (1867), 152, 153; U.S.-Netherlands (1867), 152; U.S.-North German Union (1867), 150; U.S.-Prussia (1852), 87, 138; U.S.-Switzer- land (1867), 152. Functions of, 28, 29; procedures, 186, 187; relations between, 137. Individual offices: Aachen, 9, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 95, 129, 138, 144; Antwerp 99, 100, 103, 105, 152; Arona travelling office, 152, 153; Balti- more, 136, 176; Basle, 152; Boston, 29, 36, 38, 39, 44, 50, 52, 71, 79, 84, 87, 97, 105, 135, 137, 150, 152, 174, 176, 179, 186, 189, 192; Boulogne, 48; Bremen, 150; Bremen City Post Office, 9, 12, 13, 110, 111, 112, 113, 121: Brest, 179; Brussels-Quievrain travelling office, 103; Calais, 44, 48; Calais-Paris travelling office, 50, 52, 66, 67, 71, 78, 79, 84, 171, 179; Camerlata travelling office, 152, 153; Cher- bourg, 179; Chicago, 134, 135, 137, 138, 150, 157, 176, 186, 192; Cologne, 9, 93, 94; Copenhagen, 157; Cork, 135; Detroit, 97, 134, 135, 137, 138, 176, 186, 193; Dover, 9, 99, 100, 103, 104; Dublin, 135; Emmerich, 9; Galway, 135; Geneva, 152; Glasgow, 135; Ghent-Mouscron trav- elling office, 103; Hamburg, 9, 150; Hamburg City Post Office, 121; Hull, 9, 99, 103; Korsor and Kiel travelling office, 157; Le Havre, 71, 77, 78, 108, 132, 179; Lille- Calais travelling office, 179; Liverpool, 29, 36, 90, 100, 133, 135; Liverpool Packet letter office, 146; London, 9, 48, 66, 67, 93-100 passim, 102, 103, 104, 105, 133, 135, 146, 164, 171, 177; Londonderry, 135; Moerdyke travelling office 152; New York, 29, 38, 44, 52, 66, 71, 77, 78, 79, 82, 87, 90, 93, 95, 97, 102, 105, 107, 110, 112, 116, 119, 121, 123, 131, 132, 135, 137, 143, 144, 146, 150, 152, 157, 160, 162, 163, 167, 171, 173, 174, 176, 179, 189; Ostend— local office, 99, 100, 102, 103, 105, 152; Ostend travelling office, 103, 105, 152; Paris, 44, 78, 79, 137, 139, 177; Phila- delphia, 71, 74, 77, 79, 107, 133, 137, 146 150, 165, 176, 186, 193; Portland, 134, 135, 137, 138, 176, 186, 193; San Francisco, 71, 76, 77, 136, 137, 176, 186, 193 : Southhamp- ton, 29, 57, 99, 104, 132, 133; Susa travelling office, 152, 153; Verviers-Cologne travelling office, 141, 150 Far East, places in, 143 Fond du Lac, Wis., 138 Foreign currencies: Austria, 88, 89; Baden, 21, 22, 88, 110: Bavaria, 88, 92, 96; Belgium, 74, 75, 100, 102, 103, 149, 152, 156; Brazil, 108; Bremen, 6, 9, 11, 13, 20, 21, 22, 121; Denmark, 157; France, 40, 43, 45, 48, 50, 52, 56, 57, 58, 62, 65, 67, 69, 71, 72, 73, 74, 76, 139, 165, 176, 177, 180, 183; Germany, northern, 21, 88, 131; Germany, southern, 88, 94, 110, 144; Great Britain, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 31, 40, 43, 86, 94, 99, 100, 101, 102, 149; Hamburg, 121; Hanover, 13, 123; Italy, 149, 152, 156; Netherlands, 149, 152, 157; North German Union, 149, 150, 151, 154, 155, 159, 160, 162; Prussia, 9, 11, 13, 21, 86, 88, 90, 92, 94, 95, 131, 140, 144; Rome, 76; Russia, 140; Sardinia, 76; Saxony, 21; Switzerland, 76, 96, 98, 144, 149, 152, 156: Thuringia, 92; Wurttemberg, 88, 110 Foreign trade, 1, 192 Fox and Livingston, 4, 55 Fractional postage currency notes, 185 Franco-Prussian War, 154, 156, 165 Frankfort-on-the-Main, 4, 13 French mail. See Mail services French packets, 71,72,75,179 French Post Office in Turkey, 162 Funch, Edye and Company, 158 Galway, Ireland, 126. See also Exchange offices Gand, Belgium, 100 Garonne, France, 66 Geelong, British Post Office at, 142 General Postal Union, 180 Geneva, Switzerland, 144. See also Exchange offices Georgetown, D.C, 58 German-Austrian Postal Union, 85-89 passim, 92, 120. 131, 141, 144 German mail packets, 141 Germany, Post Office in Turkey, 162 Gevekoht, C Th., 4, 12, 14 Glasgow, Scotland, 135. See also Exchange offices Graebe, Charles, 13 Greenbacks, 184, 185; issuance authorized, 184; height of inflation, 190; prices of, 186, 187; redemption, 189 Halifax, Nova Scotia, 1, 54, 55, 126 Hall, Nathan K., 46, 85 230 INDEX Halle, Prussia, 129 Hamburg, Free Hansiatic City of, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 112, 140, 142, 153, 159,165, 190. See also Exchange offices Hamburg packets, 119, 121, 123 Hanover, 4, 12, 13, 123 Hart, Creighton C, 5, 102, 104 Hartington, Marquess of, 153, 173 Havre, France. See Le Havre Hesse-Darmstadt, 4 Hesse, Grand Duchy of, 123 Hesse-Nassau, 4 Hobart Town, British Post Office at, 142 Hobbie, Major SelahR., 12, 13, 23, 24, 25, 37 Holbrook, James, 186, 189 Holt, Joseph, 106, 134 Holyhead, England, 135 Hong Kong, British Post Office at, 39, 142 House of Commons, 153, 173 Hubbard, Samuel D., 39, 42, 45 Hubbard, Walter, 58, 66 Hull, England, 9. See also Exchange offices Illinois, 137 India, 141 Indiana, 137 Indian Mutiny, 112, 116 Ingersoll, J. R., 39, 62 Instructions to postmasters, 15 Insufficiently paid letters, 103, 139, 149, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158, 177, 190 Ionian Islands, 141 Iowa, 137 Irish nationalists, 126 Italy, 4; Post Office in Turkey, 162. See also Conventions, postal Johnson, Cave, 3, 4, 13, 14, 23, 27, 33, 35, 42 Kanalle Depot, 111., 139 Kansas territory, 137 Kasson, John A., 148, 150, 164 Kentucky, 137 King George's Sound, British Post Office at, 142 Kingstown, Ireland, 135 La Rochelle, France, 78 Late-mailing fee, 29 Launceston, British Post Office at, 142 Lawrence, Abbott, 43, 44, 56, 85, 86 Leavitt, Joshua, 2 Legislation: Great Britain: Standards act (1866), 17In; order in council, 173. U.S.: Coinage acts, 184, 185, 189; Currency act, 185; issuance of notes, 185; Legal Tender act, 184, 189; metric system, 148; Mint act, 184; Specie Resumption act, 192. Legislation, postal: France: Decrees of, 45, 57, 96, 165, 176, 177; Law of 1871, 177. U.S.: Acts of (1825), 3, 24, 26; (1845), 2, 3, 4, 5; (1848), 25, 100; (1849), 35; (1851), 15, 36; (1852), 19; (1858), 115, 153; (1864), 165, 188; (1865), 153. Joint resolutions of Congress: (1844), 2, 3, 13, 36, 37; (1863), 153. Resolution of the House, 12; Resolution of the Senate, 12. Le Havre, 4, 12, 52, 54, 77, 78, 116, 117, 129, 131, 132, 165. See also Exchange offices Lehmkuhl, Karl, 109 Letter-bills, 28, 36, 40, 97 Letters, duplicate copies of, 2 Lever, John Orr, 126 Lisbon, Portugal, 4, 108 Liverpool, England, 4, 5, 15, 50, 67, 78, 79, 97, 100, 127, 133, 134, 136, 138, 146, 153, 154, 177, 188. See also Ex- change offices Livingston, Mortimer, 55 Lobbying, 4, 113 London, England, 6, 9, 12, 19, 31, 65, 135, 158, 159, 187, 193. See also Exchange offices Louisville, Ky., 121 Lubeck, 140 Luxembourg, 140, 155 Lyons, France, 59 Maberly, William L.. protection of Cunard line, 23; credit for sea postage, 39; memo to Bancroft, 42, 47; closed mail to France, 45; provisional Anglo-French agreement, 46 Madras, British Post Office at, 142 Mail agents, 78, 113, 165 Mail, closed: defined, 8 Mail, direct: defined, 8, 9 Mail, open: defined, 8 Mail services: Anglo-Belgian, 99-104; Anglo-Bremen, 6; Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 9, 93-95; Baltic Lloyd, via Stettin, 155, 158; Belgian closed mail, 105, 120; Bremen closed mail, 19, 20, 42, 85, 130; Bremen-Hamburg mail, 94, 106, 119-125, 131; Bremen mail, 12-19 passim, 109, 110, 120; British closed mail from France, 44, 45; British open mail, 37, 38; British open mail to Belgium, 99-104 passim; British open mail to France, 41-52 passim, 62-65 passim; British open mail to France (1870-74), 164, 165; British open mail to Germany, 85, 93-95 passim; British open mail to Spain, 188; British mail, 38, 39, 97, 116, 135; British mail to France (1870-74), 167-174 passim; Brit- ish mail, via Southampton, 170; Direct to France, via Havre line, 55; Direct to France (1870-74), 165; French mail, 70-84 passim, 97, 106, 108, 120, 127, 131, 137, 138, 139, 169; North German Union, closed mail, via England, 151, 160; North German Union, direct mail, 151, 159; Ocean line to France, via Southampton, 56-58; Prussian closed mail, 20, 82, 85-93 passim, 95, 106, 109, 112, 116, 117, 120, 129, 130, 131, 138, 139, 140, 142, 143, 190; U.S.-Bremen (1841), 6; U.S.-Prussia (1846), 9 Mainz, Germany, 94 Mann, Colonel A. Dudley, 4 Marcy, W. L., 39, 46 Marginal weight letters, 176 Maurin, M., 43, 56 Mecklenburg-Schwerin, 141 Mecklenburg-Strelitz, 140 Melbourne, British Post Office at, 142 NUMBER 6 231 Metric system: use authorized, 148 Michigan, 137 Middleborough, Mass., 162 Mills, Edward, 4, 55 Minnesota, 137 Minorca, Spain, 188 Mishicott (Wisconsin ?), 96 Missouri, 137 Mons, Belgium, 104 Moville, Ireland, 135 Munck, Johann, 128 Munich, Bavaria, 92 Myers, Gustavus, 114 Napoleon III, Louis, 45, 148, 164 Nantasket Roads, 18 Nantes, France, 52 Nationalism, 1, 3, 4, 115 Navy: Department of, 114, 118; United States, 136 Nebraska territory, 137 Netherlands, 12. See also Conventions, postal New Bedford, Mass., 190 Newcastle-on-Tyne, England, 190 New Orleans, 48, 50, 52, 58, 66, 67, 78, 79, 82, 95, 131, 165, 174 Newport, R.I., 54 New York, NY.,17, 19, 20, 21, 46, 56, 59, 69, 92, 94, 104, 105, 108, 113, 114, 116, 119, 120, 125, 126, 134, 143, 153, 154, 155, 156, 158, 159, 165, 177, 180; steamship arrivals in, 18, 20, 54, 55, 59, 62, 66, 68, 79, 93, 95, 105, 111, 112, 117, 120, 121, 130, 134, 135, 177, 189, 190; steamship sailings from, 11, 15, 17, 21, 46, 48, 50, 54, 55, 57, 58, 66, 68, 77, 78, 79, 82, 89, 90, 96, 100, 101, 112, 113, 116, 117, 120, 121, 123, 130, 132, 137, 153, 155, 156, 159, 165. See also Exchange offices New York Recorder,, 46 New York Times (Weekly), 46 New York Tribune (Daily), 36, 45, 46 News by telegraph, 126 North German Confederation (Union), formation of, 150 North German Postal District, 150 North German Union mail. See Mail services Norway, 4, 82, 93, 141, 142, 143, 160. See also Conventions, postal Novelty Works, 5 Nuremburg, Bavaria, 96 Ohio, 137 Oldenburg, 4, 12, 110, 140 Open mail, 8 Optional prepayment, 3, 11, 13, 14, 36-38 passim, 76, 82, 87, 88, 93, 105, 110, 127, 140, 143, 155, 156, 176 Oregon, 28, 76, 137 Ostend, Belgium, 141. See also Exchange offices Otsago, Wis., 160 Ottawa, 111., 139 Oxford, Ohio, 112 Palermo, Sicily, 82 Palmerston, Lord, 23, 24, 25, 26, 85, 86 Paris: conference, 147; France, 12, 46, 48, 50, 78, 138, 139, 164, 165, 171, 174, 177, 183, 189. See also Exchange offices Partial payments, recognition of, 36, 76, 87, 92, 97, 105, 110, 123, 139, 151, 192 Penang, British Post Office at, 142 Pernambuco, Brazil, 108 Philadelphia, Pa., 9, 46, 60, 96, 106, 133, 135, 137, 144, 157, 165, 187, 193. See also Exchange offices Plymouth, England, 153, 165, 183 Point de Galle, British Post Office at, 142 Polk, James K., 3, 25, 42 Portland, Me., 97, 132, 134, 136. See also Exchange offices Port Louis, British Post Office at, 142 Postage: as protective tariff, 24; basis of taxation, 24, 42; function of, 24 Postage stamps: Belgium: 1863 issue, 20c, 40c, 104. France: 1849 issue, 1/, 50; 1853 issue, 5c, 52; 20c, 62; 40c, 52, 62, 69; 80c, 52. Great Britain: 1841 issue, Id., 29; 2d., 5; 1847 issue, Is., 6, 29, 31, 36. Thurn and Taxis-southern district: 1852 issue, Ik, 9k, 94. United States: Boston penny post, 48; New York postmaster's, 48; "Nesbitt" stamped envelope, 58, 91; 1847 issue, 50, 11, 48, 100, 101; 10?!, 5, 21, 101; 1851 issue, 10, 50, 60; 10, type II, 52, 66; 10, type IV, 60, 102; 30, orange brown, 59, 96, 112; 30, red, 50, 58, 60, 66, 94; 50, 52, 67; 100, type II, 66, 90, 102; 100, type III, 60, 90, 123; 120,58,59,60; 1857 issue, 10, type V, 79; 30, type II, 79, 82, 108, 131; 50, type I, red brown, 78; 50, type II, brown, 132; 100, type II, 82, 123; 100, type III, 82; 100, type V, 79, 82, 121, 132; 120, 79, 108, 123, 131, 138; 300, 78; 1861 issue, 10, 93, 138; 30, 79, 106; 50, brown yellow, 123; 100, type I, 123; 100, type II, 138; 120, 79; 150, 125; 240, red lilac, 106; 240 lilac, 146; 300, 144; 900, 93; 1869 issue, 10, 165; 100, 174; 1870 issue, grilled, 100, 165; ungrilled, 30, 174; 70, 174; 100, 160; 120, 160; 1873 issue, 20, 162; 30, 162, 180; 60, 162, 180 Postal Guide: (1873), 174, 177; (1874), 180, 189 Postal Laws and Regulations: (1857), 93; (1873), 174 Postal markings: accounting markings, 28; "America/uber Bremen," 17, 21, 114, 123; Anglo-Bremen (1841) 6, 8, 9; Anglo-French (1843) 41, 44, 45, 50; (1856) 63, 69, 165; Anglo-Prussian (1846) 9-11; Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 94; Belgian boxed rate marking, 101, 103; Belgian closed mail, 107; Boston "PAID" grid, 79, 82; Bremen-Hamburg mail, 114, 120, 123, 125; Bremen mail (1847) 14, 19, 21; (1853) 112, 113; British open mail to Belgium, 101, 102, 103, 104; British open mail to France: "Colonies/&c ART 13," 41, 44, 45, 50, 65, 96; provisional agreement, 44; decree (1851) 45, 51, 52; three months' period, 63, 65-67, 69, 95, 165; (1870-74) 165, 167. British open mail to Germany and Switzerland, 94-97; British mail to Tunis, 127; British treaty mail (1848) 29, 30, 134, 138, 146, 190, 191; currency, tray or partitioned marks, 63, 95, 165, 177, 193; depreciated currency markings, 187-189, 193; direct service from France, 177; direct service to France, 55, 58, 59, 60, 62, 165, 167. Exchange offices, 29, 76, 77: Balti- more office, 136; Boston office, 138, 176; Bremen City Post Office, 9, 121; Chicago office, 135, 139, 140, 192; Detroit office, 135, 138, 139, 193; Hamburg City Post Office, 112, 121; Liverpool office, 5, 11, 31; London office, 6, 9, 11, 31; 232 INDEX Postal Markings—Continued Philadelphia office, 134, 165, 176, 193; Portland office, 135, 138, 193; San Francisco office, 136, 193. French mail: (1857) 71, 76, 79, 82, 84, 108, 132, 138, 139, 189; (1874) 180, 183 ; by Allan line, 138, 139; American packet through England, 76, 78', 79; British packet, 76, 78; direct service, 76, 79; Exchange offices; 76, 77; to Belgium, 108; to Norway, 82, 83; to Rome, 79, 82; to Sicily, 82; to Switzer- land, 79, 138, 139; unpaid letter, 79. Havre maritime office, 59, 62; Imperial German Post Office in Constan- tinople, 162, 163; New York American packet, 57, 59, 60, 62, 66, 128, 129; New York foreign mail, 180; New York "PAID ALL," 14, 162, 163, 177, 183; New York square grid, 48, 101; New York "supplementary mail," 180, 183; N.Y. Steamship, 189. North German Union mail: 151, 159, 160, 162, 163; to Norway, 160, 162, to Turkey, 162, 163. Ocean line service to France, 57, 58; "phantom rate" to France, 171; prepaid to France, via England, 174; Prussian closed mail, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 116, 130, 131, 140, 144, 190. Restatements of rate, 77, 92; U.S.-Den- mark, 157; U.S. and Great Britain (1845) 5, 6; U.S.- Sweden and Norway, 158; U.S.-Switzerland, 156; Unpaid letter from France (1870-74), 177, 193 Poste Restante, 78, 113 Post Office announcements, 33, 141, 165 Post Office Department, U.S., 2, 18, 19, 24, 34, 39, 42, 45, 46, 47, 59, 73, 93, 113, 116, 118, 136, 142, 150, 164, 165, 185, 189 Post Office Orders: Belgian, 103; Great Britain, 1, 23, 26, 100, 136; U.S., 29, 35, 45, 46, 186, 189 Pottsville, Pa., 188 Princeton, N.J., 31 Progression of rates, 8, 9, 33, 36, 87, 99, 101-105 passim, 144, 146, 170, 173, 190 Providence, R.I., 190 Provisional agreement, Anglo-French, 44, 45, 46, 50, 52, 57, 96 Prussia, 4, 12, 13, 85, 116, 140. See also Conventions, postal Prussian closed mail. See Mail services Quebec, Canada, 132, 134 Queenstown, Ireland, 97, 127, 128, 130, 135, 146, 153, 154, 177 Railroads: Antwerp and Belgium, Netherlands and Ger- many, 105; Baltimore and Ohio, 136; Hanover and coun- tries beyond, 4, 12; Midland and Great Western, 126; Grand Trunk, 134 Randall, Alexander W., 148 Rates of postage: Bremen closed mail, 19, 42; Bremen- Hamburg mail, 82, 120-123, 125, 131; Bremen mail, 13- 16, 19, 110, 111, 112, 113; British closed mail from France, 44, 45, 50; British open mail to Belgium, 100, 101, 103, 104. British open mail to France: American packet, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52; Anglo-French (1843), 40, 41, 48, 50; British packet, 42, 45, 46, 48, 50, 52; French circulaire 44, 57, 67; decree (1851), 45, 52, 56; provisional agree- ment, 44, 45, 52, 56; "retaliatory" order, 45, 46; sea postage, 45, 46, 47; three months' period, 65, 66, 67, 69, 71, 72, 82, 165; from Germany, 94, 95; to Germany, 94, 96; to Switzerland, 95, 96, 97, 98. British mail: credit for sea postage, 39, 102, 103, 104; via Southampton to Tunis, 127. British transit rate: to Bremen, 19, 42; to France, 43, 44, 47, 48, 56, 58, 62, 65, 66, 70; to Prussia, 85, 86. Co- lonial rate, 24, 150. Rates by Convention: Anglo-Belgian (1844) 99; (1849) 102; (1857) 103; Anglo-Bremen (1841) 6; Anglo-French (1843) 40, 41 (1855) 62, 63 (1856) 63-65 (1869) 169, 171; Anglo-Prussian (1846) 9 (1852) 86, 93, 94, 95, 96 (1859) 140; German-Austrian (1850) 15, 85, 86; U.S.-Bclgian (1859) 105, 106, 107 (1867) 151, 152 (1870) 156 (1873) 156; U.S. Bremen (1847) 13-16, 19 (1853) 110, 112, 120, 125, 129; U.S.- Denmark, 157; U.S.-French (1857) 71-73, 75, 82, 97, 131, 138, 139 (1874) 180, 183; U.S.-Great Britain (1848) 26- 28, 33, 38, 133, 138, 144-146, 190 (1867-68) 149, 150, 169, 170 (1869) 153; U.S.-Hamburg (1857) 119, 144; U.S.-Italy (1867) 151 (1870) 156; U.S.-Netherlands (1867) 151 (1870) 157 (1874) 157; U.S.-North German Union (1867) 150, 151, 159 (1870) 154, 156 (1871) 155, 156; U.S.-Prussia (1852) 86-90, 92, 93, 129, 130, 139, 140, 143, 144, 190; U.S.-Sweden and Norway (1873) 158; U.S.- Switzerland (1867) 151 (1870) 156. Delivery fee, 21, 88, 92. Depreciated currency: calculation of rates, 186, 187, 188; highest ratings, 190, 192; unpaid letters from France, 193. Direct service, U.S.-France, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 164, 165, 177, 189. Double sea postage, 23-35 passim, 28, 29, 31, 39, 45, 50. Fines or postage on unpaid letters, 63, 149, 152-155 passim, 157, 188, 193; French inland, 40, 43, 48, 50, 70, 177; French mail: international, 71, 72, 73, 75, 82, 97, 131, 138, 139; to Belguim, 108; to countries beyond France, 75; to Switzerland, 79, 138, 139; to Tunis. General Postal Union, 180; German-Austrian Postal Union, 86, 121; German Post Office in Constantinople, 162; Insufficiently paid letters, 103, 139, 149, 151, 153, 154, 157, 158, 177, 190; Marginal weight letters, 176; North German Union mail: international, 150, 151, 154, 155, 156, 159; to Con- stantinople, 159, 160, 162, 163; to Norway, 160; to Sweden, 160; open mail to France (1870-74), 164, 165, 167; Par- tial payments, recognition of, 36, 76, 87, 92, 97, 105, 110, 123, 139, 151, 192; "phantom" rate to France, 167-173; prepaid from France (1870-74), 176, 177; prepaid to France (1870-74), 170, 173, 174; Prussian closed mail: international, 86, 87, 88, 90, 92, 93, 129, 130, 139, 140, 141, 142, 190; to Finland, 139, 140; to Rome, 82, 143; to Switzerland, 131, 144. Private ship: British, 8, 24, 29, 99; French, 56, 57; U.S., 5, 11. Progressions: Belgian, 9, 99, 101-105 passim; Bremen-Hamburg, 144; British, 8, 9, 33, 34, 35, 36, 101, 103, 144-146, 190; French, 170- 173; Prussian, 9, 87. "restored" rates, 29, 31, 100; "retalia- tory" rates, 25, 29,31, 100, 101; Sole rates, 11,41,43, 100; split rates, 38; Triple rate, 36, 144, 146, 190, 192; U.S. (1851), 15, 56; U.S. and Great Britain (1845), 5, 8., 56, 58; U.S. and Prussia (1846), 9; Unpaid letters to France, 165, 177, 193 Ratisbon, Bavaria, 13 Reform, postal, 1, 2 Returned letters, 78, 79 Richmond, Va., 78 Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 107 Rivalry between Bremen and Hamburg, 116 NUMBER 6 233 River du Loup. See Riviere du Loup Riviere du Loup, 97, 135, 136, 139 Rochester, N.Y., 94 Rome, Roman States, 79, 143 Rouen, France, 174 Routes: Anglo-Prussian closed mail, 141; Bremen closed mail, 19, 20, 141; U.S.-Prussian closed mail, 141 Ruger Brothers, 125 Rush, Richard, 42 Russell, Lord John, 26 Russia, 4, 141, 142; Post Office in Turkey, 162 Russian Poland, 141, 142 Sailing packets, 1, 4, 55 Saint Vincent, Cape Verde Islands, 108 Salles, Raymond, 58, 78 Salt water, used in boilers, 17 San Antonio, Texas, 104 San Francisco, 76, 93, 121, 165. See also Exchange offices Sandwich Island, 76 Saxony, 4, 140 Schenectady, N.Y., 21 Schleiden, R., 109 Seward, William H., 147 Sharon Springs, N.Y., 60 Sherman, John, 192 Shipping and Commercial List and New York Prices Current, 18,54, 125, 128, 132, 138 Ship postage, 5, 6, 8, 9, 11, 23, 56, 57 Simpson, Tracy W., 66, 106 Singapore, British Post Office at. 142 Smith, A. D., 177 Smithsonian collection, 46, 57, 62, 132 Sole rates, 11,41, 43, 100 Southampton, England, 4, 17, 18, 23, 38, 39, 55, 56, 78, 102, 116, 117, 119, 120, 125, 131, 153. See also Exchange offices Southern Germany, 94 Specie payments suspended, 184 State Department, 25, 39, 164 Staunton, Va., 123 Steamship companies. See Steamship lines. Steamship contracts: compensation of lines, 115, 120; condi- tions for making, 3. Contracts between: Collins line and U.S., 114, 118; Cunard line and U.S., 132; Galway line and Great Britain, 126, 127; Guion line and U.S., 153; Hamburg-American line and U.S., 120, 153; Havre line and U.S., 114, 115, 118; Inman line and U.S., 154; Mills, Edward, and U.S., 4; New York and Bremen Steamship Company and U.S., 125; North American Lloyd and U.S., 125; North German Lloyd and U.S., 120, 153; Ocean line and U.S., 114; Vanderbilt, Cornelius, and U.S., 115, 118. Fines for non-performance, 18, 117, 119; tenders under Act of 1845, 4. See also Steamship subsidies Steamship lines: Allan line also Canadian line (Montreal Ocean Steam Ship Company), 97, 132, 134-138 passim, 153; Baltic Lloyd (Baltischer Lloyd), 155, 156, 158, 159; Baltimore and Liverpool Steamship Company, 136; City of Dublin Steam Packet Company, 135; Collins line, 19, 20, 28, 55, 66, 85, 95, 113, 116, 118, 128, 133; Compagnie Transatlantique Beige, 105; Cunard line, 1, 4, 5, 6, 11, 15, 19, 20, 23, 30, 39, 66, 68, 85, 90, 100, 118, 128, 132, 133, 135, 138, 153, 180; European and American Steam Ship- ping Company, 116; European and Australian line, 132; French line also Ligne H (Compagnie General Transatlan- tique), 77, 78, 165, 179; Fritze, W. A. and Company, 109, 111," 112, 113, 120, 126; Galway line (Atlantic Steam Navigation Company), 112, 125, 126, 127, 132; Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Co., 118; Guion line (Liverpool and Great Western Steamship Company), 153, 165, 170, 180; Hamburg-American line also Hapag (Hamburg Amerikanische Paketfahrt Aktien Gesellschaft), 116, 119, 120, 123, 131, 153, 154, 156, 165; Herout et de Handel (Transatlantic General Steam Packet Company), 54, 55; Holland-American line (Netherlands-American Steam Navi- gation Company), 157; Inman line also Dales line, 78, 82, 118, 132, 133, 135, 152, 153, 154; Messageries Imperials, 108; "Miscellaneous" line, 118, 132; New York and Bre- men Steamship Company, 125; New York-Havre line also Havre line (New York and Havre Steam Navigation Com- pany), 4, 19, 20, 55, 58, 59, 77, 85, 102, 114, 115, 129, 137; Norse American line, 158, 159; North American Lloyd, 125, 152; North Atlantic Steamship Company, 77, 131, 132; North German Lloyd, 78, 119, 120, 123, 130, 153-156 passim; Ocean line also Bremen line (Ocean Steam Navigation Company), 3-5 passim, 15, 18, 19, 20, 30, 39, 55-58 passim, 99, 100, 109, 112, 125, 129, 130, 137; Pacific Mail Steamship Company, 114; Red Star line, 157; U.S. Mail Steamship Company, 114; Vanderbilt European line, 77, 115, 116, 117, 125, 131; White Cross line, 156, 158. Lack of regularity, 118; refused to carry U.S. mail, 153; winter voyages avoided, 18, 19, 55, 112, 118 Steamships: Acadia, 5, 6, 30; Adriatic (Collins line), 127; Adriatic (North Atlantic SS Company), 131; Adriatic (Galway line), 127, 131; Africa, 46, 50, 66, 68, 82, 90, 128, 132; Allegany, 136; America (Cunard line), 11, 30, 31, 48, 50, 68; America (North German Lloyd), 189; Anglia, 127; Arabia, 46, 68, 78, 90, 92; Arago, 60, 77, 102; Arctic, 20, 48, 65, 128; Argo, 116; Ariel, 116, 117, 121; Asia, 46, 52, 68, 90, 95, 128; Atlantic (Collins line), 52, 65, 66, 67, 89, 94, 127, 128, 133; Atlantic (North American SS Com- pany), 131, 132; Atlantic (North American Lloyd), 125; Australasian, 132, 190; Baltic (Collins line), 65, 66, 96, 118, 128, 133; Baltic (North American Lloyd), 125; Bavaria, 120; Belgique, 105; Bohemian, 139; Borussia, 117, 119, 120; Bremen, 78, 120, 121, 123, 130; Britannia, 1, 9, 15, 25, 30, 31; Caledonia, 11, 25, 30, 48; Cambria, 30; Canada, 21, 30, 31, 46, 50, 68, 128; Carroll, 136; Cimbria, 165; City of Baltimore, 107, 118; City of Cork, 152; City of London, 146, 190; City of Paris, 146; City of New York, 97; City of Washington, 78, 79, 118, 133, 134, 144; Co- lumbia (Collins line), 133; Columbia (Galway line), 127; Connaught, 126; Constitution, 105; Cuba, 177; Edinburgh (Glasgow & New York Steam Ship Company), 118; Edin- burgh (Inman line), 132; Edinburgh (North American Lloyd), 125; Ericsson (Collins line), 65, 66, 93, 95, 133; Ernst Moritz Arndt, 156n; Etna, 132, 189, 190; Europa, 30, 31, 46, 67, 68, 106, 143, 189; Franklin (Baltic Lloyd), 234 INDEX Steamships—Continued 156; Franklin (Havre line), 55, 58, 60, 62; Fulton, 62, 77, 82, 104, 108; Glasgow, 82, 105; Germania, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 120; Great Britain, 5; Great Western, 5; Guiding Star, 77; Hammonia, 116, 119, 189; Hansa (Fritze Co.) 109-112 passim, 120; Hansa (North German Lloyd), 78, 193; Hermann, 5, 15, 17, 18, 30, 31, 58, 109, 111, 112, 129; Hibernia, (Cunard line), 5, 30, 55, 100, 127; Hibernia (Galway line), 127; Hudson, 120, 130; Humboldt (Baltic Lloyd), 156; Humboldt (Havre line), 55, 59, 60; Hungarian, 132; Illinois, 117, 131; Indian, 132; Indiana, 116; Indian Empire, 112, 126; Jason, 116; Kangaroo, 116, 117, 118; Klopstock, 183; Lebanon, 132; Leopold I, 105; Massachusetts, 5; Melita, 132; Mirrimack, 125; Mississippi (Havre line), 77; Mississippi (North American Lloyd), 125; Missouri, 54, 55; Navarre, 108; Nevada, 165; New York (Glasgow & New York SS Co.), 118, New York (Herout et de Handel), 54; New York (North German Lloyd), 120, 130, 131; Niagara, 30, 31, 46, 68, 69, 101, 128; North Briton, 138; Northern Light, 117; North Star, 115, 116, 121; Norwegian, 138; Ocean Queen, 117; Olympus, 132; Pacific, 60, 65, 128; Pereire, 183; Persia, 67, 68, 79, 189; Philadelphie, 54, 55; Presi- dent, 128; Prince Albert, 126; Queen of the South, 116; Sarah Sands, 5; Samaria, 177; Saxonia, 117; Shawmut, U.S.S., 107; Somerset, 136; Teutonia, 121; Thorwaldson, 156n, Union (Herout et de Handel), 54; Union (North German Lloyd), 155; Vaderland, 157; Vanderbilt, 79, 116, 117, 118, 119, 131; Vesuvius, H.B.M.S., 132; Fz'^o, 118; Fi^e _?_• Paris, 167; Washington (Baltic Lloyd), 156n; Washington (Ocean line), 5, 12, 15, 17, 18, 21, 23, 25, 30, 58, 66, 109, 111, 112, 123, 129; Weser, 120, 130; Western Metropolis, 125; Westphalia, 159; Worcester, 136 Steamship sailings: American packet, via England (1 Jan.- 1 April 1857), 66; Collins line, 1851, 128; Cunard line "retaliatory" to France, 46; Cunard line, Dec. 1856-Apr. 1857, 68; Cunard and Ocean lines—triple rate, 36; Cunard and Ocean lines—restored rates, 31; Cunard and Ocean lines—retaliatory rates, 30; W. A. Fritze and Company, 112; Galway line, mail sailing of, 127; Havre line to July 1851, 59; Herout et de Handel, 54, 55; irregularities in, 18, 19, 116, 117, 127, 129, 130; Miscellaneous line, 118; North American Lloyd, 125; North Atlantic Steamship Company, 132; North German Lloyd, 1860, 130 Steamship subsidies: Abandoned, 115; Allan line, 134; American mail packets, 2-5 passim; Collins line, 112, 113, 114; Cunard line, 1, 113, 149; Herout et de Handel, 54; lines to California, 114; method of paying, 18, 55; New York-Havre line, 55, 78; no longer necessary, 114; Ocean line, 4, 109 Steerage passengers, 116 Stettin, Prussia, 155 Stibbe, Dr. Jacques, 99n Stonington, Mass., 18 Subsidiary coins, 185-187 passim Supplementary mail, New York, 180 Sweden, 4, 141, 142, 143, 160 Switzerland, 4, 94, 97, 131, 138 Sydney, British Post Office at, 142 Syke, Prussia, 121 Taunton, Mass., 129 Thayer, M., 43, 44, 52 Thuringian states, 4, 125 Thurn and Taxis posts, 12, 13, 110, 123, 141, 150 Tilley, John, 169 Toombs, Robert A., 114, 115 Toppan, Carpenter, Casilear and Company, 46 Toppan-Carpenter correspondence, 46, 60 Toppan, Charles, 46 Treasury Warrants (British), 29, 100, 144 Treaties, postal. See Conventions, postal Trieste, Austria, 142 Triple rate, 36, 144, 146, 190, 192 Trollope, Anthony, 149, 169 Tunis, Africa, 127 Turkish towns and territory, 141, 142, 143 Tyler, John, 3 Underwood, Senator, 51 U.S. Mail and Post Office Assistant, 73, 88, 125, 136, 140, 142, 144, 151, 152, 154, 156, 158, 159, 164, 167, 170, 173, 174, 180 U.S. Official Postal Guide (1874), 189 U.S. postal agency at Bremen, 12, 13, 14, 119 Unpaid letters, fines or postage on, 63, 149, 152-155 passim, 157, 1583 188, 193 Vancouver Island, 76 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 114, 115, 116, 117 Van Vlissingen yards, 105 Verviers, Belgium, 141 Vessels of war, mail packets as, 3, 4 Victoria Bridge, Montreal, 134 Virginia City, Nevada Territory, 143 VonFalke, Privy Councilor, 12 Von Gerolt, Freiherr, 4 Warsaw, 111., 90 Washington, D.C, 1, 36, 159, 190 Washington territory, 76, 137 Webster, Daniel, 1, 56, 85 Weimar, Thuringia, 91 Wellington, British Post Office at, 142 Weser river, 12, 13 West, Captain James, 128 Westervelt and McKay, 5, 55 Wiborg, Finland, 139 Wickliffe agreement, 24, 25 Wickliffe, Charles A., 3 Wilmington, Del., 5 Winter voyages, 18, 19, 20, 55, 112, 118 Wisconsin, 137, 139 Wood, Sir Charles, 24, 26, 27, 28, 38, 41, 43 Wurttemberg, 110, 140 U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1970 O 372-645